European Union: Difference between revisions

European Union
*Европейски съюз*
*Evropská unie*
*Den Europæiske Union*
*Europese Unie*
*Euroopa Liit*
*Euroopan unioni*
*Union européenne*
*Europäische Union*
*Ευρωπαϊκή Ένωση*
*Európai Unió*
*An tAontas Eorpach*
*Unione Europea*
*Eiropas Savienība*
*Europos Sąjunga*
*L-Unjoni Ewropea*
*Unia Europejska*
*União Europeia*
*Uniunea Europeană*
*Európska únia*
*Evropska unija*
*Unión Europea*
*Europeiska unionen*
European Union
	Flag Presidency insignia of the European Union Presidency insignia
Commission seat	Brussels
Official languages	23 Bulgarian ; Czech ; Danish ; Dutch ; English ; Estonian ; Finnish ; French ; German ; Greek ; Hungarian ; Irish ; Italian ; Latvian ; Lithuanian ; Maltese ; Polish ; Portuguese ; Romanian ; Slovak ; Slovenian ; Spanish ; Swedish;
Member states	27 Austria ; Belgium ; Bulgaria ; Cyprus ; Czech Republic ; Denmark ; Estonia ; Finland ; France ; Germany ; Greece ; Hungary ; Ireland ; Italy ; Latvia ; Lithuania ; Luxembourg ; Malta ; Netherlands ; Poland ; Portugal ; Romania ; Slovakia ; Slovenia ; Spain ; Sweden ; United Kingdom;
Government	Sui generis supranationalism
• Commission	José Manuel Barroso
• Parliament	Hans-Gert Pöttering
• Council	Portugal
• European Council	José Sócrates
Formation
• Treaty of Rome	25 March 1957
• Treaty on European Union	7 February 1992
• Water (%)	3,08
Population
• 2007 estimate	494,070,000 (3rd1)
GDP (PPP)	2006 (IMF) estimate
• Total	$13,881 billion (1st1)
• Per capita	$42,213 (14th1)
GDP (nominal)	2007 (IMF) estimate
• Total	$15,849 billion (1st1)
• Per capita	$31,173 (13th1)
Currency	15 Euro (€) (EUR) (de jure) ; ; British pound ; Bulgarian lev ; Cypriot pound ; Czech koruna ; Danish krone ; Estonian kroon ; Hungarian forint ; Latvian lats ; Lithuanian litas ; Maltese lira ; Polish złoty ; Romanian leu ; Slovak koruna ; Swedish krona;
Time zone	UTC0 to +2
• Summer (DST)	UTC+1 to +3
Internet TLD	.eu
	If considered as a single entity.;

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The European Union (EU) is a sui generis supranational political body, made up of 27 member states in Europe. It was established in 1993 by the Maastricht Treaty and is the de facto successor to the six-member European Economic Community founded in 1957 by the Treaty of Rome. Since 1957 new accessions have raised the number of member states, and powers have expanded. As a result, the EU can be described as both a supranational and an intergovernmental body.

The combined economy of the EU is the largest in the world with a nominal GDP of €11.6 (US$15.7) trillion in 2007.^[1] The EU has a single market between member states with a common trade policy,^[2] a Common Agricultural/Fisheries Policy, and a regional development policy.^[3] It introduced a common currency, the euro, which has been adopted by thirteen member states. Since 1993, the EU has developed a limited Common Foreign and Security Policy, and cooperation in police and judicial matters.

Important EU institutions and bodies include the European Commission, the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union, including the European Council, the European Court of Justice and the European Central Bank. Citizens of EU member states are also EU citizens. EU citizens directly elect the European Parliament every five years. EU citizens can freely invest, live, travel, and work in other member states (with some temporary restrictions on new member states^[4]). Passport control and customs checks between most member states were abolished in the Schengen Agreement.^[5]

History

In 1945, at the end of the Second World War, Europe was marked by unprecedented devastation and human suffering. It faced new political challenges, in particular reconciliation among the peoples of Europe and the growing political division between the USA and the USSR, two ideologically-opposed superpowers. This situation favoured a long held idea of European unification through the creation of common institutions. In a famous speech at the University of Zurich in 1946, Winston Churchill called for a United States of Europe and the creation of a Council of Europe. The latter was established in Strasbourg on 5 May 1949 as the first European institution. The Schuman Declaration, based on a plan by Jean Monnet and signed 9 May 1950, gave rise to the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). The aim of the ECSC was to integrate the markets for the industrial resources necessary for reconstruction of Europe, and the production of weapons of war. The founding members of the community, who signed the Treaty of Paris (1951), were France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg (who already co-operated as the Benelux countries) and West Germany.^[6]^[7]

File:Rometreaty.jpg

The founding nations signing the Treaty of Rome in 1957

Two additional communities were created by the Treaties of Rome in 1957; the European Economic Community (EEC), establishing a Customs Union and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom) for cooperation in nuclear energy. The ECSC and Euratom were merged into the EEC in 1967 with the signing of the Merger Treaty. They had a single membership with a combined set of treaties and institutions, and the collective was referred to as the European Communities (now, the European Community, within the EU).^[8]^[9]^[10]

In 1973 the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom.^[11]In 1979 the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held.^[12] Greece, Spain and Portugal joined in the 1980s.^[13] In 1985 the Schengen Agreement was developed among European states to allow for the abolition of systematic border controls between the participating countries. It also included provisions for common policy on the temporary entry of persons (including the Schengen Visa), the harmonisation of external border controls, and cross-border police co-operation. The agreement has been subsequently signed by 30 states, including most EU member states and three non-EU members (Iceland, Norway and Switzerland). By 2007 15 member states had implemented the agreement. The Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom take part only in the police co-operation measures and not in common border control and visa provisions.^[14] In 1986 the European flag was adopted and leaders signed the Single European Act. In 1989, Germany reunified after the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the former East Germany joined the enlarged Germany in EU membership. With enlargement toward eastern Europe on the agenda, the Copenhagen Criteria were agreed and the Maastricht Treaty formally established the EU on 1 November 1993. With that treaty, the European Community became one of three pillars of the EU, alongside new areas of integration: foreign policy and interior affairs.^[15]^[16]

Austro-German border, open since Austria joined Schengen in 1995

In 1994 the European Economic Area was established, allowing the non-members Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway access to the EU's single market. In 1995 Austria, Sweden and Finland joined the EU. The Amsterdam Treaty was signed in 1999, shortly after the resignation of the Santer Commission. In the same year the euro was introduced for bank transfers, and euro coins and banknotes replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states in 2002. In 2003 the Nice Treaty came into force, followed a year later by the accession of ten countries (eight central and eastern European countries, Malta and Cyprus).^[16]^[17]

Later in 2004, the European Constitution was signed in Rome, though it was never fully ratified after rejection by French and Dutch voters in referenda. In 2007, it was agreed to replace that proposal with a new Reform Treaty (or "Lisbon Treaty") that would not have constitutional elements but would reform existing treaties. At the start of that year Romania and Bulgaria joined the EU and the euro was adopted by Slovenia. It was agreed to allow Cyprus and Malta to adopt the euro at the start of 2008.^[17]

Geography

22 member countries are influenced by extensive coastlines and oceanic climate, (Mediterranean, Greece)

The territory of the EU consists of the combined territories of its 27 member states with significant exceptions outlined below. The territory of the EU is not the same as that of Europe, as significant parts of the continent, such as Switzerland, Norway and European Russia, are outside the EUn, and some overseas territories are part of the EU while not being geographically part of Europe. The EU's member countries cover a combined area of 4,422,773 square kilometres (1,707,642 sq mi).^[18] The total territory of the EU is the seventh largest territory in the world by area. The landscape, climate and economy of the EU are heavily influenced by its long coastline. It is estimated that the coastline of the EU is over 150,000 km long. The combined member states of the EU share land borders with 21 EU non-member states.^[19]

Depending on national legislation, parts of member countries are not part of the EU, although they are part of the European continent. Examples include the Channel Islands and Faroe Islands. Several territories associated with member states that are outside geographic Europe are also not part of the EU (such as Greenland, most territories associated to the United Kingdom, Aruba, the Netherlands Antilles or New Caledonia). The Treaty of Amsterdam, defining certain rights within the EU, does not apply to all these remote territories.^[20]^[21] On the other hand, overseas territories and dependencies are formally part of the EU even if they are not geographically part of Europe, such as the Azores, Madeira, French Guiana, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and the Canary Islands. These territories use the Euro.^[7]

Including overseas territories of member states, the EU includes most types of climate from Arctic to tropical, rendering meaningless meteorological averages for the EU as a whole. The majority of the population lives either in areas with a Mediterranean climate (southern Europe), a temperate maritime climate (Western Europe), or a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate (in eastern member states).^[22]

Enlargement

The European Coal and Steel Community was founded in 1952 by six countries. Between 1973 and 2007 there have been six waves of enlargement bringing the current membership up to 27. The largest enlargement occurred in 2004 when 10 members joined at the same time.^[23] There are currently three official candidate countries, Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Turkey. In addition the western Balkan countries of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia are officially recognised as potential candidates.^[24] The Copenhagen criteria (see below) allow any European country to apply. While Croatia's accession is moving along relatively smoothly, Turkey is facing strong opposition from some quarters, notably from the French President, Nicolas Sarkozy.^[25] The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia officially states that it is expecting to join the Union in a few years. However, for its accession a number of obstacles must be overcome, including the dispute with Greece over its name.^[26]

To join the EU, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 Copenhagen European Council. These require a stable democracy respecting human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy capable of competition within the Union and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU laws. Evaluation of a country's fulfilment of the criteria rests with the European Council.^[27] Enlargement has been seen as a positive force by many, for example in democratising Eastern Europe^[28] and causing war crimes suspects in the former Yugoslavia to be brought to the ICTY.^[29]

labelled map of Europe showing progressive EU enlargements

The member states of the European Union (European Communities pre-1993), animated in order of accession. Only territories in and around Europe are shown.

Year	History of EU membership		Total
1957	Belgium France^[30] Germany^[30]	Italy Luxembourg Netherlands	6
1973	Denmark^[30] Ireland	United Kingdom	9
1981	Greece		10
1986	Portugal	Spain	12
1995	Austria Finland	Sweden	15
2004	Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Latvia	Lithuania Malta Poland Slovakia Slovenia	25
2007	Bulgaria	Romania	27

Politics

President-in-Office of the European Council, José Sócrates

The politics of the EU primarily cover the economy, which is reminiscent of its history originating in a series of economic communities after the Second World War. When the Maastricht Treaty established the EU, the scope was expanded to the pillar system whereby foreign and home affairs were added to the intergovernmental domain of the EU.^[31]

The expansion of the EU has been seen as a means for promoting and reinforcing peace and democracy on the European continent following the Second World War and later after the decline of the Soviet Union. Another aim of the EU has always been to increase its economic prosperity.^[28] Accession to the European treaties necessarily means to give over some powers from the national government to an international organisation (as is the case for all international treaties). The powers that passed from national governments to the EU are large compared to most international treates. The ongoing integration of Europe is becoming contested on the grounds that it reduces members' national sovereignty too much.^[32] Enlargement together with integration (new treaties) are seen by some as parallel processes, vital to the EU or it will fail: this is know as the "bicycle theory".^[33]

To govern and guide the ongoing integration and the larger number of members states the European Constitution was proposed. However ratification of this treaty was rejected by Dutch and French voters.^[34] By the end of 2007, a new "Reform Treaty" should agreed upon by the leaders to come into force in 2009. The new treaty would carry out most of the reforms enviseded in the Constitutions but without the constituional elements and would add to, not replace, the existing treaties.^[35]

One of the most important political issues concerns the EU budget. The Financial Perspective for 2007–2013 was defined in 2005 when EU members agreed to fix the common budget to 1.045% of the European GDP.^[36] However there are long running disputes over the Common Agricultural Policy and the UK rebate. The UK rebate is a special discount on the UK contributions to the EU budget. The rebate was allowed as the UK was receiving relatively little agricultural support compared to other countries. The agricultural policy has historically dominated much of the EU's spending. Reduction of the agricultural spending and abolition of the UK rebate are listed as important reforms of the system by various groups. This is however problematic as unanimity is required to change these agreements, meaning that both the gross receivers from agricultural policies and the UK have to give up a privileged position. So far no agreement has been reached.^[37]

Institutions and bodies

File:Europaparlament.jpg

The Strasbourg seat of Parliament

The EU is governed by a number of institutions, primarily the Commission, Council and Parliament. The European Commission acts as the executive branch. It is currently composed of 27 commissioners, one from each member state. The commission is responsible for drafting all proposed rules in order to co-ordinate European Law. It also controls some agencies and is responsible for the day-to-day running of the Union. The president of the commission is nominated by the European Council, and confirmed by the Parliament.^[38]

The Council of the European Union (also known as the Council of Ministers) forms one half of the EU's legislative branch, the other being the Parliament. It is composed of the national ministers responsible for the area of EU law being addressed. For example, European legislation regarding agriculture would be treated by a Council composed of the national ministers for agriculture. The body's presidency rotates between the member states every six months. To increase stability the current president member state co-operates with both the previous and the next president member state.^[39] It should not be confused with the European Council, which is not an official institution (although the European Council is an important body and shares its presidency with that of the Council of the EU). It is composed of the heads of government and the President of the European Commission. The European Council meets four times a year.^[40] The other half of the legislative branch is the European Parliament and is the only Union body composed of representatives directly elected by the citizens of the EU member states. Every five years citizens in all member states elect 785 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) who form the second half of the EU's legislative branch. Although the elections are for national candidates, the members of the parliament have seats according to political ideals rather than nationality. The chair of the parliament is elected by its members.^[41]

The Judicial branch of the EU consists primarily of the European Court of Justice composed of 27 judges, one judge being nominated by each member-state. The president is elected from the judges. Below the Court of Justice there is a lower court called the Court of First Instance created to reduce the work load of the Court of Justice. There is also the European Court of Auditors, which monitors the EU's accounts.^[42]^[43]

Other bodies include the European Central Bank and the two advisory committees: the Committee of the Regions and the Economic and Social Committee.^[44]^[45] The European Central Bank (ECB) controls the monetary policy within the Eurozone (member states that have adopted the euro as currency). It was established in 1998 and has its headquarters located in Frankfurt, Germany.^[46]

There is no official capital of the EU. The locations of the institutions are spread across many cities and several member states. However, Brussels is often considered the de facto capital as most of the primary institutions are concentrated there,^[47] including the Commission and the Council. The Parliament is partly based in the city but has its official seat in Strasbourg, holding at least twelve plenary sessions of one week each year. Luxembourg city plays host to all the EU's courts and a number of other departments and bodies.^[48]

European Community

The European Community is the oldest supranational element of the EU. The community is the direct successor of the European Economic Community, and is now the first pillar of the EU. It is within this pillar where certain elements of sovereignty are pooled and controlled by supranational institutions such as the Commission and Parliament. For example, within matters where sovereignty is given to the Community, the Commission has the sole right to initiate legislation. Other matters, such a home affairs, fall within the responsibility of an intergovernmental agreement between the members. The principle of subsidiarity in this pillar is designed to ensure that decisions are taken at the lowest level of government.^[49] In the Amsterdam Treaty, some powers were moved from the third pillar to the Community^[31] and in 2007, the Court of Justice ruled that the Community has powers to propose legislation for criminal law.^[50]

A prominent political goal of the EU is the development and maintenance of an effective single market, ensuring free movement of people, goods, services and capital.^[51] Legislation over the years has harmonised standards and liberalised markets. However, not all changes have been equally welcomed, for example the Bolkestein directive faced protests over its liberalisation of services.^[19] The single market is extended to non EU members through the European Economic Area (EEA) treaties. Through this treaty Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway accept certain elements of EU law.^[52]

File:RondoGenMaczka2005.jpg

EU funds finance development such as this motorway in Katowice

In addition to EU commission policies such as the agricultural policy, and the Common Fisheries Policy, there are a number of Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds aimed at promotion of the development of poorer, underdeveloped, regions across the Union. Currently these regions are primairly located in the new member states of eastern Europe.^[53] The EU is sponsoring research through its Framework Programmes dealing with research and technological development working towards a European Research Area.^[54] Other funds provide emergency aid, support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to EU standard (Phare, ISPA, and SAPARD), support to the commonwealth of independent states (TACIS).

With regard to the powers of the European Commission, there has been a desire to address the democratic deficit of the EU through the development of citizenship of the EU. Citizens have a number or rights including the right to vote and to stand as candidates in local government and European Parliament elections in any member state.^[55] However there has been falling turnout at elections, with few political structures at EU level and no cohesive European civil society. Commissioner for Communication Strategy, Margot Wallström, has been one notable figure attempting to correct this situation.^[56] Her plans allow European political parties, instead of national parties running for EU parliament, would be allowed to campaign in the different countries and thus give these supranational parties greater ability for them to run with candidates for Commission President.^[57]

Common Foreign and Security Policy

CFSP High Representative Javier Solana with US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice.

Defence and security are traditionally matters of national sovereignty. EU policies in this area were established as the second of the three pillars in the Maastricht Treaty of 1992. The Common Foreign and Security Policy or CFSP were further defined and broadened in the Amsterdam Treaty of 1997. The Amsterdam treaty defined five objectives for the CFSP: to safeguard the common values, fundamental interests, independence and integrity of the European Union in conformity with the principles of the United Nations Charter; to strengthen the security of the Union in all ways; to preserve peace and strengthen international security, in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter, as well as the principles of the Helsinki Final Act and the objectives of the Paris Charter, including those on external borders; to promote international co-operation; to develop and consolidate democracy and the rule of law, and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms; the foreign and security policy is coordinated by the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy, currently Javier Solana.^[58]

Foreign policy is agreed upon on an inter-governmental basis. This can lead to differing national policies which happened for example regarding Iraq.^[59] Besides emerging international policy, the international effect of the Union is felt through Enlargement. The potential benefits of becoming member is considered a major factor contributing to reform and stabilisation of former Communist countries in Eastern Europe.^[28] The Union is also the largest contributor of humanitarian aid in the world. In 2005 the Commission's aid agency (ECHO), together with additional support by the individual member states, contributed €43 billion in aid.^[60] These factors influencing other countries are generally referred to as "soft power", as opposed to military "hard power".^[61]

While member states are themselves responsible for their own territorial defence, with NATO providing common military capabilities and assurances, the EU as a body adopted the Petersberg tasks of peacekeeping and humanitarian missions. The European Security and Defence Policy, with its European Security Strategy, deals with such capabilities.^[62] The EU's military mainly consists of the souvereign military of its member states. The EU specific military includes a 60,000-member European Rapid Reaction Force and EU Battlegroups of 15,000 men.^[63] These are supported by bodies such as the European Defence Agency, satellite centre and the military staff.^[64] The European Council have deployed various missions to Africa, the former Yugoslavia and the middle east.^[65]

Along side its foreign and security policy, the Commission is gaining greater representation in international bodies such as the United Nations, where it has influence over areas such as aid due to its large contributions in that field,^[57] and the G8, in which the Commission and Council Presidents have non-voting representation.^[66] Generic representation is primarily through the European Commissioner for External Relations, who works along side the High Representative. However in the World Trade Organization (WTO), where all 27 member states are represented, the EU as a body is represented by Trade Commissioner Peter Mandelson.^[67]

Police and Judicial Co-operation

The third of the three pillars of the EU focuses on cooperation in criminal matters, including sharing of intelligence (through Europol and the Schengen Information System), agreement on common definition of criminal offences and expedited extradition procedures. It is the EU instrument of law enforcement and fighting racism. Eurojust is a mirror organisation to Europol, dealing the judicial matters. The police and judicial pillar was created as the Justice and Home Affairs pillar in the Treaty of Maastricht. Some issues were subsequently transferred in the Amsterdam Treaty transferred to the integrated first (European Community) pillar, including the areas of illegal immigration, visas, asylum, and judicial co-operation. The term Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJC) now covers these integrated fields as well as the intergovernmental third pillar.^[68]^[69]^[31]

Treaties and law

File:EUCoJ.jpg

The European Court of Justice has the last word on Union law

EU law is the first and only example of a supranational legal framework. The European Court of Justice ruled in one of its earliest cases that EU law constitutes "a new legal order of international law".^[70] By becoming EU members, sovereign nation states cede authority to the EU for the mutual social and economic benefit of their people.^[71] EU law follows the principle of subsidiarity, which means that laws are only passed at European when these are more effective compared to legislation of member states themselves,^[72] while EU law is supreme in specific fields (which was extended to encompass criminal law in 2005).^[73]

The two main treaties that form the basis of EU law are the Treaty of the European Community (also know as the Treaty of Rome) from 1957, and the Treaty of the European Union (or the Maastricht treaty) from 1992. The Treaty of Rome deals with the "first pillar" of the EU: the competence of the "European Community" to act in the social and economic arena. The Maastricht treaty created the European Union and added two further "pillars:" the competence of the EU in relation to foreign and security policy, and the competence in relation to justice and home affairs. For legislation within these two latter pillars, a consensus among member states is required.^[74]

EU law covers a broad range of topics, often as broad as the legislation of the member states.^[21] Where a conflict arises between EU law and the law of a member state, EU law takes precedence.^[75]^[73] Both the provisions of the Treaties, and EU regulations are said to have "direct effect" horizontally. This means that private citizens can call upon the rights granted to them (and the duties created for them) by EU legislation. For instance, an air hostess could sue her employer for sexual discrimination based on legislation provided in EU treaties.^[76] The other legal instrument of the EU, called "directives", also have a direct effect but only "vertically". This means that private citizens cannot call upon their rights based upon EU directives, but that directives can only be addressed through the member state.^[77] Directives allow some choice for member states in the way they translate a directive into national law. Once this has happened citizens may rely on that national law or if the national law does not reflect the EU directive, they may sue the national government ("vertically") for the failure in implementing a directive correctly.^[77]^[78] An example of a directive is the EU Copyright directive (2001/29/EC), which harmonises the different national copyright laws across the EU.

Economy

The EU was created first and foremost as an economic union. Its combined single market is notionally the largest economy in the world, with an estimated nominal GDP of 11.6 euro (USD14.5) trillion in 2006 (compared to the second largest economy, the United States, with a GDP of $13.2 trillion) accounting for 35% of world GDP.^[79] The European Union is the largest exporter in the world and the second largest importer.^[80] It is the biggest trading partner to many countries, such as China^[81] and India.^[82]

Within the EU's market, which extends to Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway via the European Economic Area, four freedoms are guaranteed: free movement of goods, services, capital and persons.^[83] To aid this, 13 members of the EU have adopted a common currency, the euro. Together they are called the eurozone and they have a common European Central Bank, although the currency is used by a number of other countries outside of the Union.^[84]^[85] The OECD has projected that in 2007 the eurozone will grow by 2.7%, faster than the projected 2.1% growth in the United States.^[86]In 2006, 2 million of the 3 million jobs created in the EU were in the eurozone, although the eurozone economy is set to grow 2.4%, slightly slower than the EU as a whole, at 2.7%.^[87]

There are substantial economic disparities across the EU, reflecting the different economies of its member states. Even corrected for purchasing power, the difference between the richest and poorest regions (NUTS-2 & 3) is about a factor of ten; Frankfurt has €68,751 PPP per capita, Paris €67,980,^[88] and Inner London €65,138. While Romania's Nord-Est has €5,070 PPP per capita and Bulgaria's Severozapaden has €5,502 PPP per capita.^[89] By comparison, United States GDP per capita is 35% higher than the EU average and the Japanese GDP per capita is approximately 15% higher.^[90]

Energy and Infrastructure

File:GalileoPS.jpg

Galileo positioning system has been initiated by the EU and ESA

The EU has been a legislative power in the area of energy policy for many years. This involvement evolved from of the European Coal and Steel Community. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005 and the first draft policy was published in January 2007.^[91] The EU currently imports 82% of its oil and 57% of its gas, making it the world's leading importer of these fuels.^[92] In 2007, member states legally bound the EU to use 20% renewable energy and cut carbon dioxide emissions by at least 20% from 1990 levels, by 2020.^[93] In 2020, one-tenth of all cars and trucks in EU 27 are agreed to be running on biofuels. This is considered to be one of the most ambitious moves by large industrialised regions to fight global warming.^[94]

The EU is working to improve cross-border infrastructure, for example through the economic Trans-European Networks and the Galileo positioning system. Galileo is a proposed Global Navigation Satellite System, to be built by the European Union and launched by the European Space Agency (ESA). Galileo was lauched to reduce the Unions dependency on the US-operated Global Positioning System. Galileo extends its cooperation to other nations outside the EU and is to be operational by 2010.^[95]

Demographics

The population of the EU is that of its member states, and changes with each accession (or, more rarely, secession). As each members has its own demographic make-up, changes in members also affect demographic averages such as life expectancy and fertility rate, hence the demographic of the EU may change relatively fast. The combined population of all 27 member countries was approximately 492.9 million in 2006.^[96] Of the current three candidates members only accession of Turkey would significantly increase this number, by about 72 million or 14.7%.^[97] Between 2004 and 2025 the population of the EU 25 is expected increase by approximately 13 million. This increase be will primarily be due to net immigration, which is present in most European countries. In 2005 natural population increase was only 0.7 and it is expected that by 2010 deaths will start to outnumber births and the population will fall to 449.8 million by 2050.^[98]^[99]

With its large population (7.3% of the world's population) living on just 3% of the land surface, the EU is one of the most densely populated regions of the world. Eighty percent live in an urban area and a third live in cities of over a million people.^[100] The Union is home to more global cities than any other region in the world^[101] and 16 cities with populations of over one million (using city proper figures). However, different countries deal differently with large cities. Athens, for example, has about four million inhabitants, but it has been divided into many municipalities making the city proper of Athens one of the smaller European capitals, with about 800,000 inhabitants. Densely populated regions that have no single core but have emerged from the connection of several cites and are now encompassing large metropolitan areas are Rhine-Ruhr having approximately 10.5 million inhabitants (Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al.), Randstad approx. 7 million (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht et al.), Frankfurt Rhine Main Area approx. 4 million (Frankfurt, Wiesbaden et al.) and the Upper Silesian Industry Area approx. 3.5 million. (Katowice, Sosnowiec et al.).^[102]

L. City proper (2005)	mill.	L. Urban area (2005)	mill.	L. Urban zone (2001)	mill.
London	7.5	Paris	10.1	London	11.6
Berlin	3.4	London	8.5	Paris	11.0
Madrid	3.1	Madrid	5.5	Madrid	5.6
Rome	2.5	Ruhr	5.3	Ruhr	5.4	Barcelona	Berlin	London
Paris	2.2	Barcelona	4.5	Berlin	4.9
Bucharest	1.9	Milan	3.8	Barcelona	4.8
Hamburg	1.8	Berlin	3.7	Milan	3.9
Warsaw	1.7	Randstad	3.3	Athens	3.9
Budapest	1.7	Athens	3.2	Rome	3.7
Vienna	1.7	Naples	2.9	Hamburg	3.1	Madrid	Milan	Paris

Languages

Languages (2006)^[103]
	First Language	Language Total
English	13%	51%
German	18%	32%
French	12%	26%
Italian	13%	16%
Spanish	9%	15%
Polish	9%	10%
Dutch	5%	6%
Swedish	2%	3%
Greek	2%	2%
Other EU Languages		~8%
Minority Languages		~16%

The EU has 23 official and working languages: Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish and Swedish.^[104] German is the most widely spoken mother tongue (about 90 million people) followed by English, French, and Italian. English is by far the most spoken foreign language, while German and French follow. 56% of EU citizens are able to hold a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue.^[103] Most official languages of the EU belong to the Indo-European language family, except Estonian, Finnish, and Hungarian, which belong to the Uralic language family, and Maltese, which is a Semitic language. EU official languages are written in the Latin alphabet except Bulgarian, written in Cyrillic, and Greek, written in the Greek alphabet.^[105]

The EU provides interpretation, translation and publication services in its official languages, but only legislation and important documents are produced in all 23 official languages. Other documents are translated only into the languages necessary for their use. For internal purposes the EU institutions make their own language arrangements. The European Commission, for example, conducts its internal business in English, French and German, and only use all languages for public information and communication purposes. The European Parliament, on the other hand, has members who need working documents in their own languages, so its document flow is fully multilingual from the outset.^[106] In the EU, language policy is the responsibility of member states, but EU institutions, based on the principle of subsidiarity, promote the teaching and dissemination of the languages of the member states, through a number of programmes, most prominently Lifelong learning Programme 2007-2013.^[107]^[108]

There are about 150 regional and minority languages, spoken by up to 50 million people.^[105] Of these, only the Spanish regional languages: Catalan, Galician, and Basque can be used in the communication of the citizens with the Council of the European Union, the Commission, the Economic and Social Committee, the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman, as well as in the workings of the Committee of the Regions.^[109] Though regional and minorities languages can benefit from EU programmes, protection of linguistic rights is a matter for the individual member states. A wide variety of languages from other parts of the world are spoken by immigrant communities in EU countries. Turkish, Maghreb Arabic, Russian, Urdu, Bengali, Hindi, Tamil, Ukrainian, and Balkan languages are spoken in many parts of the EU. Many older immigrant communities are bilingual in the local language and in that of their community. Migrant languages are not given formal status or recognition in the EU or in the EU countries and they are not covered by EU language teaching programmes.^[105]

Religion

The most common religious belief in the EU is Christianity. European Christianity can be roughly divided into Roman Catholicism, a wide range of Protestant churches (especially in northern Europe) and Eastern Orthodoxy (in south eastern Europe).^[110]
Judaism has had a long history, and in the past frequently dark history, in Europe. In 2002 the EU had an estimated Jewish population of something over a million, including about 519,000 in France and about 273,500 in the United Kingdom (compare with about 5 million Jews living in Israel.^[111]) In view of the history of persecution of Jews in Europe, antisemitism remains a matter of attention within the EU.^[112] There are indications that antisemitism is on the increase in today's Europe. For instance, a British parliamentary enquiry into antisemitism found that where the prevailing opinion within and outside the Jewish community had until recently been that antisemitism existed only in the margins of society, there is evidence that this may have changed for the worse from 2000 onwards.^[113]

Immigration has also introduced other religions into Europe, most notably Islam. It was estimated that the Union's Muslim population in 2006 was 16 million people. ^[114] Although there is at present no Muslim majority in any member state, this will change if the accession of Albania or Turkey proceeds.^[115]

Estimates are that a majority of EU citizens still have some form of belief system^[116] although only 21% see it as important.^[117] There is increasing atheism or agnosticism among the general population in Europe, with falling attendance and membership in many countries.^[117]^[118] In 2005, a survey of the EU's members at that time found that of the EU citizens, 52% believe in a god, 27% in some sort of spirit or life force and 18% had no form of belief. The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were the Czech Republic (19%) and Estonia (16%).^[116] In such countries, even those who have a faith can be disdainful of organized religion.^[119] The most religious societies are those in Malta with 95% (predominantly Roman Catholic), and Cyprus and Romania both with about 90% of citizens believing in a god. Candidate country Turkey also reports about 95% of its citizens believing in a god (a country which is predominantly Muslim). Across the EU, belief was higher among women, increased with age, those with religious upbringing, those with the lowest levels of formal education, those leaning towards right-wing politics, and those reflecting more upon philosophical and ethical issues.^[116]

The EU is a secular body, with no formal connections to any religion and no mention of religion in any current or proposed treaty.^[21] Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Reform Treaty have included proposals to mention Christianity and/or God in the preamble of the text. This call has been supported by Christian religious leaders, most notably the Pope.^[120] However explicit inclusion of a link to religion faced opposition from secularists and the final Constitution referred to Europe's "Religious and Humanist inheritance". A second attempt to include Christianity in the treaty was undertaken in 2007 with the drafting of the Reform Treaty. Angela Merkel promised the Pope that she would use her influence during Germany's presidency to try to include a reference to Christianity and God in this replacement for the constitution. This has provoked opposition, not least in the German press,^[121] and as this inclusion may have caused problems in reaching a final agreement, this attempt was given up.^[122]

In the secularising EU, Vatican has been vocal against a perceived "militant atheism"; which it based on the rejection of religious references in the EU treaties, the rejection by Parliament of Rocco Buttiglione as a European Commissioner in 2004, and the legalisation of same-sex marriage in countries such as the Netherlands, Belgium, and Spain (and other advances in LGBT rights in the EU).^[120]

Culture

The EU has no specific culture or cultural history, other than those of its member states, so EU culture is intertwined with the culture of Europe. Within the EU, supporters of European integration often appeal to a shared European historical/cultural heritage, typically including Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, the feudalism of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Age of Enlightenment, 19th century Liberalism and (sometimes) negative elements such as the World Wars. European values are assumed to be grounded in this shared heritage.^[123] Whereas there is some agreement on the historical areas in the history of Europe, the status of Christianity as an essential element in 'European heritage' is more controversial. Adopting Christianity as an essential part of European culture may relate unfavourable to the accession of the secular, but largely Muslim, Turkey to the EU. People in favour of Turkish accession argue that this would show beyond doubt that EU is not an exclusively 'Christian club', while opponents use the non-Christian culture of Turkey as an argument against its possible membership.^[124]

Cultural attitudes and values of the EU population are diverse, influenced not necessarily by nationality but by social class, religion, level of education, and ethnicity. Hence cultural attitudes are neither necessarily European nor national in character. The motivation of member states in EU participation is mainly economic and political in nature. The EU in itself has little common culture, other than the culuture that is also shared with the rest of Europe or even beyond. Cultural diversity, intercultural dialogue and an emphasis on tolerance and consensus are part of the common culture being developed by the European Union.^[125]

There is however some EU cultural cooperation. Cultural cooperation between member states has become a community competency since its inclusion in 1992 in the Maastricht Treaty.^[126] Actions taken in the cultural area by the European Union include the Culture 2000 7-year programme,^[126] the European Cultural Month event,^[127] the Media Plus programme,^[128] and the European Capital of Culture programme — where one or more cities in the EU are selected for one year to assist cultural development of the city.^[129] In addition, the Union gives grants to cultural projects (233 in 2004) and has launched a webportal dedicated to Europe and Culture, responding to the European Council's expressed desire to see the Commission and the member states "promote the networking of cultural information to enable all citizens to access European cultural content by the most advanced technological means."^[130]

Sport

Sport policy is largely the domain of the member states, with the EU mostly playing an indirect role. Recently the EU launched an anti-doping convention. The role of the EU might increase in the future, if (for example) the Reform Treaty were to be ratified by all member states.^[131] Other policies of the EU can have an impact on sports, for example the freedom of employment which was at the core of the Bosman ruling, which prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with EU nationality.^[132]

Sports, including spectator sports, are popular in EU countries, the most popular being football. Cycling, golf, tennis, and field hockey are also widely watched and played in the EU. Other sports are favourites in fewer countries, such as basketball, ice hockey, rugby, handball, and motorsports; and several sports are only played to a significant extent in one or a few countries (e.g. cricket in the United Kingdom, hurling, Gaelic handball and Gaelic football in the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, and korfball in the Netherlands and Belgium).

Although it recently launched an anti-doping convention, the European Union plays a minor and mostly indirect role in sport policy. Sports are normally considered to be outside the competences conferred by the member states to the European Union. Sports are also organised nationally, on a European continental level (which is not the same as the level of the European Union), or globally. The European Union does not have specific sports policies. The role of the EU could increase, if (for example) the European Constitution were to be ratified.

Education and science

Both education and science are areas where the individual members hold the legislative powers, and where the EU itself is limited to supporting actions.^[21] The activity of the Union in education began cautiously, as pilot actions to help member states develop educational policy in areas of common challenges. It developed in the 1980s into programmes supporting exchanges and mobility. The most visible of these has been the ERASMUS programme, which over its 20-year existence (since 1987) has supported international exchange opportunities for well over 1.5 million university and college students.^[133] In 1996, the European Year of Lifelong Learning was held, and with this a proces to encourage member countries to think together about their education and training strategies. The Erasmus program has now been combined with similar programs for high-school pupils and teachers, for trainees in vocational education and training, and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007-2013. The purpose of these exchange and mobility activities is partly to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries, their habits and systems; and partly to spread good practices in the education and training fields. The programme is managed through an Executive Agency^[134] and through a series of National Agencies.^[135]

An important milestone in European policy for higher education is rooted in the Bologna process in 1999. A number of EU and other European countries agreed to make higher education standards comparable over Europe. Although officially not a policy of the EU this process has heavily contributed in harmonisation of higher education over the Union, for example through the creation of the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System, which allows students to compare credits achieved in courses over the members states who have adopted the system; and the agreement to structure higher education studies into a Bachelor-Master system.^[136] Until 2000 and the adoption of the Lisbon Strategy, the EU provided little in the field of direct policy support for education. However, following the conclusions of the European Council in March 2000,^[137] which invited European Ministers of Education to reflect together on the "concrete objectives of education" and to make recommendations, the European Commission and member countries have worked together on a substantial programme of joint policy on education, known as "Education and Training 2010". This program now covers much of the education and training area, and operates in the format of the Open Method of Coordination.^[138]

Activity of the EU in science began in 1984 with the first Framework Programme for scientific research and development. The aims of EU scientific policy may be summarised as coordinating European research policy and those of member states, and using scientific research to stimulate and support other EU policies (such as environmental protection) or activities (such as industrial development and innovation). It has traditionally been carried out by providing funds for open calls for transnational research projects on a wide range of topics selected by the EU. The current Seventh Framework Programme continued these calls for international project, but has also provided funds for the European Research Council, an independent body which allocates research funding without the requirement for trans-nationality.^[139]

Since January 2000 the European Commission has set its sights on a wider objective, known as the European Research Area. This has the support of all member states, and extends the existing financing structure of the frameworks. The research area is based on voluntary participation of individual member states (i.e. it is an open method of coordination project). It aims to focus on joint policy development and coordination, agreeing on joint objectives to facilitate the transfer of knowledge and the mobility of researchers between countries, improving the conditions within which researcher careers develop, encouraging links between business and industry and removing among others legal and administrative barriers.^[140]

In further effort to build a European science base, and to improve the competitive edge of the EU in the area of innovation and technology, the commission has proposed the foundation of a European Institute of Innovation and Technology. Whether this plan will include its own campus, or will be mainly a network of existing research facilities in the EU is not yet decided.^[141]

Footnotes

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^ Restrictions on free movement of labour apply to the ten new members for a maximum period of seven years. They are applied in varying degrees by all old members except the Republic of Ireland, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
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^ Figure including the four French overseas departments (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Réunion) which are an integral part of the EU, but excluding the French overseas collectivities and territories, which are not part of the EU
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On 3 October 1990, the constituent Länder of the former German Democratic Republic acceded to the Federal Republic of Germany, automatically becoming part of the Communities.
On 1 February 1985, following a referendum, Greenland leaves the Communities. It had been granted home rule by Denmark in 1979.
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^ Under Art. 141 TEC, C-43/75 Defrenne v. Sabena [1976] ECR 455
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^ "EU25 population rises until 2025, then falls" (PDF). Eurostat. 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-07-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ Muenz, Rainer (2006). "Europe: Population and Migration in 2005". Migration Information. Retrieved 2007-07-14. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "A densely populated area". Telsat Guide. Retrieved 2007-07-22. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "The World According to GaWC". Loughborough University. Retrieved 2007-06-29. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "Indicators for larger urban zones 1999 - 2003". Eurostat. Retrieved 2007-01-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ ^a ^b "Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Survey)" (PDF). European Commission. 2006. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
"Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Executive Summery)" (PDF). European Commission. 2006. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "Council Regulation (EC) No 1791/2006 of 20 November 2006". Official Journal of the European Union. 2006-12-12. Retrieved 2007-02-02. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c "Many tongues, one family. Languages in the European Union" (PDF). Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 2004. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "Europa:Languages and Europe. FAQ: Is every document generated by the EU translated into all the official languages?". Europa (web portal). 2004. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "Consolidated version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, Articles 149 to 150". Official Journal of the European Union. 2004. Retrieved 2007-02-01. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "European Parliament Fact Sheets: 4.16.3. Language policy". European Parliament. 2004. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "Mercator Newsletter - n. 29". Mercator Central. 2006. Retrieved 2007-02-01. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "Chrisianity". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ Jewish population figures may be unreliable. These estimates are taken from: Sergio DellaPergola. "World Jewish Population (2002)". American Jewish Year Book. The Jewish Agency for Israel. Retrieved 2007-05-03.
^ EUMC (2006). "Anti-Semitism Summary overview of the situation in the European Union" (PDF). EUMC. Retrieved 2007-05-04. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ All-Party Parliamentary Group against Antisemitism (2006). "Report of the All-Party Parliamentary Inquiry into Antisemitism" (PDF). The Stationery Office, London. Retrieved 2007-05-03. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ "In Europa leben gegenwärtig knapp 53 Millionen Muslime". Islam.de. 2006-02-25. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); soft hyphen character in |title= at position 22 (help)
^ "Muslims in Europe: Country guide". BBC News. 2005-12-23. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c "Eurobarometer 225: Social values, Science & Technology" (PDF). Eurostat. 2005. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ ^a ^b Cline, Austin (2005-02-28). "Secularism in Europe". About.com. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ Zuckerman, Phil (2005). "Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ Cline, Austin (2006-02-25). "Czech Republic: Most Atheist Country in Europe?". About.com. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ ^a ^b "Vatican resists European secularism". BBC News. 2005-02-11. Retrieved 2007-07-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "European press review: God and the EU Constitution". BBC News/Süddeutsche Zeitung. 2006-09-12. Retrieved 2007-07-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ Rettman, Andrew (2006-09-12). [euobserver.com/15/24066 "Merkel gives up on God in EU treaty"]. EU Observer. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help); Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ For example: Hans-Gert Poettering (2007-02-13). "Priority is dialogue for partnership and tolerance". Inaugural speech by the new president of the European Parliament. European Parliament. Retrieved 2007-07-18.
^ Kepel, Gilles (2004-12-14). "Turkey's European problem" (PDF). Open Democracy. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "Communication from the commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on a European agenda for culture in a globalizing world" (PDF). Commission of the European Communities. 2007-05-10. Retrieved 2007-07-18.
^ ^a ^b Bozoki, Andras. "Cultural Policy and Politics in the European Union" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "European Culture Month". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "Media programme". philatelism.com. 2007-07-05. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ Bozoki, Andras. "European Capitals of Culture". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "Cultural heritage as a vehicle of cultural identity". philatelism.com. 2007-07-05. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ Goldirova, Renata (2007-07-11). "Brussels' first-ever move into sport area set to spark controversy". EU Observer. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ Fordyce, Tom (2007-07-11). "10 years since Bosman". BBC News. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "The Erasmus programme celebrates its 20th aniversary". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "Lifelong Learning Programme". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ [hhttp://www.bologna-bergen2005.no/EN/BASIC/050520_Framework_qualifications.pdf "The framework of qualifications for the European Higher Education Area"] (PDF). Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research. Retrieved 2007-07-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ European Council. "Presidency Conclusions, Lisbon European Council". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "Education and training 2010, diverse systems, shared goals". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "European Research Council: What is the ERC?". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "What is the European Research Area?". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ "European Institute of Technology". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

References

EU Law, Text, Cases and Materials, by Paul Craig and Grainne De Burca, 3rd ed., (Oxford University Press 2003) ISBN 0198765096
The Economist Guide to the European Union (Profile Books 2005) ISBN 978-1-86197-930-8
Access to European Union: law, economics, policies by Nicholas Moussis (European Study Service, 2007 — 16th ed.) ISBN 978-2-930119-43-4
Europe Recast: A History of European Union by Desmond Dinan (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004) ISBN 978-0-333-98734-6
Understanding the European Union 3rd ed by John McCormick (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005) ISBN 978-1-4039-4451-1
The Institutions of the European Union edited by John Peterson, Michael Shackleton, 2nd edition (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0198700520
The Government and Politics of the European Union by Neill Nugent (Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 978-0-333-98461-1
The European Union: A Very Short Introduction by John Pinder (Oxford, 2001) ISBN 978-0-19-285375-2
The United States of Europe: The New Superpower and the end of American Supremacy by T.R. Reid (Penguin Press, 2004) ISBN 978-1-59420-033-5
This Blessed Plot: Britain and Europe from Churchill to Blair by Hugo Young (Macmillan, 1998) ISBN 978-0-333-57992-3
The European Dream: How Europe's Vision of the Future Is Quietly Eclipsing the American Dream by Jeremy Rifkin (Jeremy P. Tarcher, 2004) ISBN 978-1-58542-345-3
The Great Deception: The Secret History of the European Union by Christopher Booker, Richard North (Continuum International Publishing Group — Academi, 2003) ISBN 978-0-8264-7105-5
Template:PDFlink by Hans Köchler, Singapore Yearbook of International Law, Vol. 9 (2005), Accessed January 25, 2007

External links

EUROPA — the official EU web portal

Column-generating template families

The templates listed here are not interchangeable. For example, using {{col-float}} with {{col-end}} instead of {{col-float-end}} would leave a <div>...</div> open, potentially harming any subsequent formatting.

Column templates
Type	Family	Handles wiki table code?^†	Responsive/ mobile suited	Start template	Column divider	End template
Float	"col-float"	Yes	Yes	{{col-float}}	{{col-float-break}}	{{col-float-end}}
Float	"columns-start"	Yes	Yes	{{columns-start}}	{{column}}	{{columns-end}}
Columns	"div col"	Yes	Yes	{{div col}}	–	{{div col end}}
Columns	"columns-list"	No	Yes	{{columns-list}} (wraps div col)	–	–
Flexbox	"flex columns"	No	Yes	{{flex columns}}	–	–
Table	"col"	Yes	No	{{col-begin}}, {{col-begin-fixed}} or {{col-begin-small}}	{{col-break}} or {{col-2}} .. {{col-5}}	{{col-end}}

^† Can template handle the basic wiki markup {| | || |- |} used to create tables? If not, special templates that produce these elements (such as {{(!}}, {{!}}, {{!!}}, {{!-}}, {{!)}})—or HTML tags (<table>...</table>, <tr>...</tr>, etc.)—need to be used instead.

Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA

[GDP_IMF-1] "World Economic Outlook Database". International Monetary Fund. 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-29. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_Internal_Market-2] "Actitivies of the European Union: Internal Market". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-29. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[3] Farah, Paolo (2006). "Five Years of China WTO Membership. EU and US Perspectives about China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism". Social Science Research Network. Retrieved 2007-01-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Restrictions_on_free_movement-4] Restrictions on free movement of labour apply to the ten new members for a maximum period of seven years. They are applied in varying degrees by all old members except the Republic of Ireland, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
"Free Movement of Workers". European Commission. 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-27. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Internal_borders-5] "Abolition of internal borders and creation of a single EU external frontier". European Commission. 2005. Retrieved 2007-01-24. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[ENA_WW2-6] "Europe in ruins in the aftermath of the Second World War". European NAvigator. Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_History_45-59-7] "A peaceful Europe - the beginnings of cooperation". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) Cite error: The named reference "Europa History 45-59" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

[ENA_Euratom-8] "A European Atomic Energy Community". European NAvigator. Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[ENA_EEC-9] "A European Customs Union". European NAvigator. Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[ENA_Merge-10] "Merging the executives". European NAvigator. Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[ENA_First_enlargement-11] "The first enlargement". European NAvigator. Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[ENA_New_Parliament-12] "The new European Parliament". European NAvigator. Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[ENA_Enlargement_negotiations-13] "Negotiations for enlargement". European NAvigator. Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_Schengen_acquis-14] "The Schengen acquis and its integration into the Union". Europa (web portal). 2005. Retrieved 2007-06-28. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_History_80-89-15] "1980-1989 The changing face of Europe - the fall of the Berlin Wall". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_History_90-99-16] "A Europe without frontiers". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_History_00-17] "A decade of further expansion". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Area.and.population.figure-18] Figure including the four French overseas departments (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Réunion) which are an integral part of the EU, but excluding the French overseas collectivities and territories, which are not part of the EU

[Europa_Members-19] "European countries". Europa (web portal). 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-29. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) Cite error: The named reference "Europa Members" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

[Amsterdam-20] "Treaty of Amsterdam". Eur-Lex: Official Journal. Retrieved 2007-06-29. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Consolidated_Treaties-21] "Consolidated Treaties on European Union and establishing the European Community". Eur-Lex. Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Humid_Continental_climate-22] "Humid Continental Climate". University of Wisconsin. 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-29. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Delegation_History-23] "Brief History of European Integration". European Delegation to Japan. Retrieved 2007-07-24. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_Enlargement-24] "European Commission - Enlargement - Candidate and Potential Candidate Countries". European Commission. Retrieved 2007-06-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[EUObserver_TurkeyEuro-25] "France blocks start of Turkey eurozone talks". EU Observer. 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[CroMace_Join-26] "FMs Kitarovic and Milososki sure that Croatia and Macedonia would join NATO in 2008, EU in near future". Turkish Weekly. 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Accession_Criteria-27] "Accession criteria (Copenhagen criteria)". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Enlargement_voice-28] "EU enlargement - voices from the debate". British Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Retrieved 2007-06-27. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[EUObserver_ICTY-29] Kubosova, Lucia (2007). "Del Ponte: EU enlargement bringing justice to Balkans". EU Observer. Retrieved 2007-06-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Enlargement_footnote-30] Algeria was an integral part of France, and hence the EEC, until 5 July 1962, when it became independent from France and hence left the Communities.
On 3 October 1990, the constituent Länder of the former German Democratic Republic acceded to the Federal Republic of Germany, automatically becoming part of the Communities.
On 1 February 1985, following a referendum, Greenland leaves the Communities. It had been granted home rule by Denmark in 1979.

[Glossary_Pillars-31] "Pillars of the European Union". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-27. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Anti-EU-32] "FAQs on the EU, from the campaign trail". Sovereignty. 2001. Retrieved 2007-06-29. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[FT_Bicycle-33] Bounds, Andrew (2007). "Brussels blog: Bicycle wobbles on the way to Doha". Financial Times. Retrieved 2007-06-27. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[BBC_Reform-34] "EU leaders agree on reform treaty". BBC News. 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-27. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[35] "EU unveils bulky new treaty draft". EU Observer. 2007-07-09. Retrieved 2007-07-23. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[Financial_2007-36] "Financial Perspective 2007–2013" (PDF). Consilium. 2005. Retrieved 2007-01-17. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[BBC_Rebate-37] "Fact check: Britain's EU rebate". BBC News. 2005. Retrieved 2007-06-27. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_Institutions_Commission-38] "Institutions: The European Commission". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_Institutions_Council-39] "Institutions: The Council of the European Union". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_Institutions_ECouncil-40] "European Council". Council of the European Union. Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_Institutions_Parliament-41] "Institutions: The European Parliament". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_Institutions_Justice-42] "Institutions: Court of Justice". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_Institutions_Auditors-43] "Institutions: Court of Auditors". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_Institutions_COR-44] "Institutions: The Committee of Regions". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_Institutions_ECSC-45] "Institutions: The European Economic and Social Committee". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_Institutions_Bank-46] "Institutions: European Central Bank". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Brussels_Capital-47] "Brussels, Capital of Europe" (PDF). European Commission. 2001. Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Council_Edinburgh-48] European Council (1992). "European Council in Edinburgh: 11 - 12 December 1992, Annex 6 to Part A" (PDF). European Parliament. Retrieved 2007-06-24. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Sweden_Pillars-49] "The three pillars of the EU". Swedish Presidency, 2001. 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-27. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Rechtennieuws_Powers-50] Duchateau, Michiel (2007). "Expanding the powers of the European Community". Rechtennieuws. Retrieved 2007-06-27. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_Single_Market-51] "The Single Market". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-27. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Relations_EEA-52] "The European Economic Area (EEA)". European Commission. 2004. Retrieved 2007-06-27. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Business2000_Funds-53] "EU Structural and Cohesion Funds". Business 2000. Retrieved 2007-06-27. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Euractiv_FP7-54] "7th Research Framework Programme (FP7)". Euractiv. 2004. Retrieved 2007-06-27. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_Citizenship-55] "European citizenship". European Commission. Retrieved 2007-01-24. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[EUObserver_Communication-56] "Brussels struggles with communication policy". EU Observer. 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-27. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[EUObserver_Political-57] Mahony, Honor (2007). "European politics to get more political". EU Observer. Retrieved 2007-06-27. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) Cite error: The named reference "EUObserver Political" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

[Europa_CFSP-58] "Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) - Overview". European Commission. 2002. Retrieved 2007-06-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[BBC_Iraq_statement-59] "Divided EU agrees Iraq statement". Europa (web portal). 2003. Retrieved 2007-06-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_Activities-60] "Activities of the EU". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Soft_Power-61] Bildt, Carl (2005). "Europe must keep its 'soft power'". Financial Times on Centre for European Reform. Retrieved 2007-06-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_ESDP-62] "EU Security Police & the role of the European Commission". European Commission. Retrieved 2007-06-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Council_Capabilities-63] "Capabilities". Council of the European Union. Retrieved 2007-06-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Council_Structures-64] "ESPD Structures". Council of the European Union. Retrieved 2007-06-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Council_Operations-65] "EU Operations". Council of the European Union. Retrieved 2007-06-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[FCO_G8-66] "European Union G8 Gleneagles 2005". British Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Retrieved 2007-06-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_Trade-67] "European Commission - External Trade - Trade Issues". European Commission). Retrieved 2007-06-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Council_PJC-68] "Police and Judicial Cooperation (PJC)". Council of the European Union. 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Euractiv_PJC-69] "Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters: Will the EU Constitutional Treaty Keep it Together?". Euractiv. 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[70] Van Gend en Loos v. Nederlanse Administratie Der Belastingen, Eur-Lex (European Court of Justice 1963).

[Patten_Sovereignty-71] Patten, Chris (2000). "Sovereignty and Democracy in the European Union". Euractiv. Retrieved 2007-06-30. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Glossary_Subsidiarity-72] "Glossary: Subsidiarity". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-06-30. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Euractiv_Supremacy-73] "EU law supremacy even in criminal matters". Euractiv. 2005. Retrieved 2007-06-30. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Europa_Treaties-74] "European treaties". Europa (web portal). 2005. Retrieved 2007-06-30. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Supremacy-75] In general, see C 6/64, Falminio Costa v. ENEL [1964] ECR 585, 593; in the UK see, Factortame Ltd. v Secretary of State for Transport (No. 2) [1991] 1 AC 603; in Germany see Solange II (Re Wuensche Handelsgesellschaft, BVerfG decision of 22 Oct. 1986 [1987] 3 CMLR 225,265); in Italy see Frontini v. Ministero delle Finanze [1974] 2 CMLR 372; in France see, Raoul George Nicolo [1990] 1 CMLR 173

[76] Under Art. 141 TEC, C-43/75 Defrenne v. Sabena [1976] ECR 455

[EUPARL_1.2.1-77] "Sources and scope of Community law". European Parliament Fact Sheets. European Parliament. 2004. Retrieved 2007-07-05. Cite error: The named reference "EUPARL 1.2.1" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

[78] This liabilty has been confirmed and clarified by several judgments of the ECJ.
Ian B. Lee (1999). "Damages in the Positive Law of the European Union". In Search of a Theory of State Liability in the European Union. Academy of European Law online. {{cite web}}: Text "2007-07-01" ignored (help); Text "accessdate" ignored (help)

[79] European Union: USD14,527,140 billion; United States: USD13,244.550 billion.
"World Economic Outlook Database, April 2007 Edition". World Economic and Financial Surveys. International Monetary Fund. 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-15. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[80] CIA rankorder, CIA Worldfactbook, Accessed May 27, 2007

[Trade_China-81] "China now EU's biggest import market". People's Daily Online. 2007-01-31. Retrieved 2007-07-22. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Trade_India-82] "India". Europa (web portal). June 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-22. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[EEA-83] "The European Economic Area (EEA)". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21.

[ECB_org-84] "The use of the euro in the world". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21.

[euro_where-85] "ECB, ESCB and the Eurosystem". European Central Bank. Retrieved 2007-07-21.

[EUO_outpace-86] Rettman, Andrew (2007-05-24). "Eurozone outracing US on economic growth". EU Observer. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[2006_grow-87] "Economic growth in the European Union continues at a brisk pace". Europa (web portal). 2007-02-16. Retrieved 2007-07-24. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[Frankfurt_Paris-88] Eurostat. "Table: E3GDP95 = Gross domestic product (GDP) at current market prices at NUTS level 3". Retrieved 2007-04-19.

[London_Nord-Est_Severozapaden-89] "Regional GDP per inhabitant in the EU 27" (PDF). Eurostat. Retrieved 2007-03-01. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[STAT/06/166-90] "GDP per capita in the Member States ranged from 48% to 251% of the EU25 average in 2005". Eurostat. 2006-12-18. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Energy_Q&A-91] "Q&A: EU energy plans". BBC News. 2007-03-09. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[low_carb_prop-92] "'Low-carbon economy' proposed for Europe". MSNBC. Retrieved 2007-01-24. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[EUO_energy-93] Rettman, Andrew (2007-03-09). "EU sticks out neck in global climate change battle". EU Observer. Retrieved 2007-03-09. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Discovery_energy-94] Ames, Paul (2007-03-09). "European Union agrees on ambitious plan to fight global warming". Discovery Channel. Retrieved 2007-03-09. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Barrot-95] Barrot, Jacques. "Jacques Barrot Home Page". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Eurostat_Population-96] "Total population". Eurostat. Retrieved 2007-07-14. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Enlargement_Figures-97] "Gearing regional policy to EU enlargement scenarios". European Parliament. 2007-04-24. Retrieved 2007-07-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Press_Pop_Eurostat-98] "EU25 population rises until 2025, then falls" (PDF). Eurostat. 2005-04-08. Retrieved 2007-07-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Migration_Info-99] Muenz, Rainer (2006). "Europe: Population and Migration in 2005". Migration Information. Retrieved 2007-07-14. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[urban_dens-100] "A densely populated area". Telsat Guide. Retrieved 2007-07-22. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[101] "The World According to GaWC". Loughborough University. Retrieved 2007-06-29. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Eurostat_Urban_zones-102] "Indicators for larger urban zones 1999 - 2003". Eurostat. Retrieved 2007-01-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Eurobarometer_Languages-103] "Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Survey)" (PDF). European Commission. 2006. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
"Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Executive Summery)" (PDF). European Commission. 2006. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Official_Languages-104] "Council Regulation (EC) No 1791/2006 of 20 November 2006". Official Journal of the European Union. 2006-12-12. Retrieved 2007-02-02. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Many_tongues,_one_family-105] "Many tongues, one family. Languages in the European Union" (PDF). Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 2004. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[106] "Europa:Languages and Europe. FAQ: Is every document generated by the EU translated into all the official languages?". Europa (web portal). 2004. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[107] "Consolidated version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, Articles 149 to 150". Official Journal of the European Union. 2004. Retrieved 2007-02-01. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[108] "European Parliament Fact Sheets: 4.16.3. Language policy". European Parliament. 2004. Retrieved 2007-02-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Mercator-109] "Mercator Newsletter - n. 29". Mercator Central. 2006. Retrieved 2007-02-01. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Christianity_Britannica-110] "Chrisianity". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[111] Jewish population figures may be unreliable. These estimates are taken from: Sergio DellaPergola. "World Jewish Population (2002)". American Jewish Year Book. The Jewish Agency for Israel. Retrieved 2007-05-03.

[112] EUMC (2006). "Anti-Semitism Summary overview of the situation in the European Union" (PDF). EUMC. Retrieved 2007-05-04. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[113] All-Party Parliamentary Group against Antisemitism (2006). "Report of the All-Party Parliamentary Inquiry into Antisemitism" (PDF). The Stationery Office, London. Retrieved 2007-05-03. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[Islam.de_SecE-114] "In Europa leben gegenwärtig knapp 53 Millionen Muslime". Islam.de. 2006-02-25. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); soft hyphen character in |title= at position 22 (help)

[BBC_Muslims-115] "Muslims in Europe: Country guide". BBC News. 2005-12-23. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Eurostat_Religion-116] "Eurobarometer 225: Social values, Science & Technology" (PDF). Eurostat. 2005. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[About_SecE-117] Cline, Austin (2005-02-28). "Secularism in Europe". About.com. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[Zuckerman_Atheism-118] Zuckerman, Phil (2005). "Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[About_SecC-119] Cline, Austin (2006-02-25). "Czech Republic: Most Atheist Country in Europe?". About.com. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[BBC_Vatican-120] "Vatican resists European secularism". BBC News. 2005-02-11. Retrieved 2007-07-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[God_Const-121] "European press review: God and the EU Constitution". BBC News/Süddeutsche Zeitung. 2006-09-12. Retrieved 2007-07-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[EUO_Merkel_God-122] Rettman, Andrew (2006-09-12). [euobserver.com/15/24066 "Merkel gives up on God in EU treaty"]. EU Observer. Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help); Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[123] For example: Hans-Gert Poettering (2007-02-13). "Priority is dialogue for partnership and tolerance". Inaugural speech by the new president of the European Parliament. European Parliament. Retrieved 2007-07-18.

[124] Kepel, Gilles (2004-12-14). "Turkey's European problem" (PDF). Open Democracy. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[125] "Communication from the commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on a European agenda for culture in a globalizing world" (PDF). Commission of the European Communities. 2007-05-10. Retrieved 2007-07-18.

[Bozoki-126] Bozoki, Andras. "Cultural Policy and Politics in the European Union" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[127] "European Culture Month". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[128] "Media programme". philatelism.com. 2007-07-05. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[129] Bozoki, Andras. "European Capitals of Culture". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[130] "Cultural heritage as a vehicle of cultural identity". philatelism.com. 2007-07-05. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[131] Goldirova, Renata (2007-07-11). "Brussels' first-ever move into sport area set to spark controversy". EU Observer. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[132] Fordyce, Tom (2007-07-11). "10 years since Bosman". BBC News. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[133] "The Erasmus programme celebrates its 20th aniversary". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[134] "Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[135] "Lifelong Learning Programme". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[136] [hhttp://www.bologna-bergen2005.no/EN/BASIC/050520_Framework_qualifications.pdf "The framework of qualifications for the European Higher Education Area"] (PDF). Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research. Retrieved 2007-07-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[137] European Council. "Presidency Conclusions, Lisbon European Council". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[138] "Education and training 2010, diverse systems, shared goals". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[139] "European Research Council: What is the ERC?". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[140] "What is the European Research Area?". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[141] "European Institute of Technology". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 2007-07-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

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@@ Line 307: / Line 307: @@
 </center>
-==Languages==
+===Languages===
 <div style="font-size: 80%">
 {| class="wikitable" table style="border:1px #000000;" cellspacing="0" align="right" style="margin-left: 1em;  text-align:right;"
@@ Line 345: / Line 345: @@
 people.<ref name="Many tongues, one family"/> Of these, only the Spanish regional languages: [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Galician language|Galician]], and [[Basque language|Basque]] can be used in the communication of the citizens with the Council of the European Union, the Commission, the Economic and Social Committee, the European Parliament and the [[European Ombudsman]], as well as in the workings of the [[Committee of the Regions]].<ref name="Mercator">{{cite web|last=|first=|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Mercator Newsletter - n. 29|work=|publisher=Mercator Central|date=2006|url=http://www.mercator-central.org/newsletter/newsletter29.htm#2|format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-02-01}}</ref> Though regional and minorities languages can benefit from EU programmes, protection of [[linguistic rights]] is a matter for the individual member states. A wide variety of languages from other parts of the world are spoken by [[immigrant]] communities in EU countries. [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Maghreb Arabic]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Urdu]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Hindi]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], and [[Balkan languages]] are spoken in many parts of the EU. Many older immigrant communities are [[bilingual]] in the local language and in that of their community. Migrant languages are not given formal status or recognition in the EU or in the EU countries and they are not covered by EU language teaching programmes.<ref name="Many tongues, one family"/>
-==Religion==
+===Religion===
 [[Image:Europe religion map en.png|thumb|190px|Predominant religious heritage in European countries
 {{legend|#cee|[[Protestantism]]}}
@@ Line 357: / Line 357: @@
 Immigration has also introduced other religions into Europe, most notably [[Islam]]. It was estimated that the Union's Muslim population in 2006 was 16 million people. <ref name="Islam.de SecE">{{cite web|last=|first=|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=In Europa leben gegenwärtig knapp 53 Millionen Muslime|work=|publisher=Islam.de|date=[[2006-02-25]]|url=http://islam.de/8368.php|format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-21}}</ref> Although there is at present no Muslim majority in any member state, this will change if the accession of Albania or Turkey proceeds.<ref name="BBC Muslims">{{cite web|last=|first=|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide|work=|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=[[2005-12-23]]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm|format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-21}}</ref>
+Estimates are that a majority of EU citizens still have some form of belief system<ref name="Eurostat Religion">{{cite web|last=|first=|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Eurobarometer 225: Social values, Science & Technology|work=|publisher=[[Eurostat]]|date=2005|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf|format=PDF|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-21}}</ref> although only 21% see it as important.<ref name="About SecE">{{cite web|last=Cline|first=Austin|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Secularism in Europe|work=|publisher=About.com|date=[[2005-02-28]]|url=http://atheism.about.com/b/a/149439.htm|format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-21}}</ref> There is increasing [[atheism]] or [[agnosticism]] among the general population in Europe, with falling attendance and membership in many countries.<ref name="About SecE"/><ref name="Zuckerman Atheism">{{cite web|last=Zuckerman|first=Phil|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns|work=|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|date=2005|url=http://www.pitzer.edu/academics/faculty/zuckerman/atheism.html|format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-21}}</ref> In 2005, a survey of the EU's members at that time found that of the EU citizens, 52% believe in ''a'' god, 27% in ''some sort of spirit or life force'' and 18% had no form of belief. The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were the Czech Republic (19%) and Estonia (16%).<ref name="Eurostat Religion"/> In such countries, even those who have a faith can be disdainful of organized religion.<ref name="About SecC">{{cite web|last=Cline|first=Austin|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Czech Republic: Most Atheist Country in Europe?|work=|publisher=About.com|date=[[2006-02-25]]|url=http://atheism.about.com/b/a/009710.htm|format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-21}}</ref> The most religious societies are those in Malta with 95% (predominantly Roman Catholic), and Cyprus and Romania both with about 90% of citizens believing in a god. Candidate country [[Turkey]] also reports about 95% of its citizens believing in a god (a country which is predominantly Muslim). Across the EU, belief was higher among women, increased with age, those with religious upbringing, those with the lowest levels of formal education, those leaning towards [[right-wing politics]], and those reflecting more upon philosophical and ethical issues.<ref name="Eurostat Religion"/>
-===Religious belief===
-[[Christianity]] is the dominant religion in Europe. Although there are no exact numbers, estimates are that a majority of EU citizens still have some form of belief system<ref name="Eurostat Religion">{{cite web|last=|first=|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Eurobarometer 225: Social values, Science & Technology|work=|publisher=[[Eurostat]]|date=2005|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf|format=PDF|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-21}}</ref> although only 21% see it as important.<ref name="About SecE">{{cite web|last=Cline|first=Austin|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Secularism in Europe|work=|publisher=About.com|date=[[2005-02-28]]|url=http://atheism.about.com/b/a/149439.htm|format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-21}}</ref> There is increasing [[atheism]] or [[agnosticism]] among the general population in Europe, with falling attendance and membership in many countries.<ref name="About SecE"/><ref name="Zuckerman Atheism">{{cite web|last=Zuckerman|first=Phil|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns|work=|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|date=2005|url=http://www.pitzer.edu/academics/faculty/zuckerman/atheism.html|format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-21}}</ref> In 2005, a survey of the EU's members at that time found that of the EU citizens, 52% believe in ''a'' god, 27% in ''some sort of spirit or life force'' and 18% had no form of belief. The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were the Czech Republic (19%) and Estonia (16%).<ref name="Eurostat Religion"/> In such countries, even those who have a faith can be disdainful of organized religion.<ref name="About SecC">{{cite web|last=Cline|first=Austin|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Czech Republic: Most Atheist Country in Europe?|work=|publisher=About.com|date=[[2006-02-25]]|url=http://atheism.about.com/b/a/009710.htm|format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-21}}</ref> The most religious societies are those in Malta with 95% (predominantly Roman Catholic), and Cyprus and Romania both with about 90% of citizens believing in a god. Candidate country [[Turkey]] also reports about 95% of its citizens believing in a god (a country which is predominantly Muslim). Across the EU, belief was higher among women, increased with age, those with religious upbringing, those with the lowest levels of formal education, those leaning towards [[right-wing politics]], and those reflecting more upon philosophical and ethical issues.<ref name="Eurostat Religion"/>
-===Church and state===
 The EU is a [[secular]] body, with no formal connections to any [[religion]] and no mention of religion in any current or proposed treaty.<ref name="Consolidated Treaties"/> Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Reform Treaty have included proposals to mention [[Christianity]] and/or [[God]] in the preamble of the text. This call has been supported by Christian religious leaders, most notably the [[Pope]].<ref name="BBC Vatican">{{cite web|last=|first=|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Vatican resists European secularism|work=|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=[[2005-02-11]]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4253937.stm|format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-14}}</ref> However explicit inclusion of a link to religion faced opposition from secularists and the final Constitution referred to Europe's "Religious and [[Humanist]] inheritance". A second attempt to include Christianity in the treaty was undertaken in 2007 with the drafting of the Reform Treaty. [[Angela Merkel]] promised the Pope that she would use her influence during Germany's presidency to try to include a reference to Christianity and God in this replacement for the constitution. This has provoked opposition, not least in the German press,<ref name="God Const">{{cite web|last=|first=|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=European press review: God and the EU Constitution|work=|publisher=[[BBC News]]/[[Süddeutsche Zeitung]]|date=[[2006-09-12]]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/5337166.stm|format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-14}}</ref> and as this inclusion may have caused problems in reaching a final agreement, this attempt was given up.<ref name="EUO Merkel God">{{cite web|last=Rettman|first=Andrew|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Merkel gives up on God in EU treaty|work=|publisher=EU Observer|date=[[2006-09-12]]|url=euobserver.com/15/24066 |format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-21}}</ref>
@@ Line 374: / Line 372: @@
 There is however some EU cultural cooperation. Cultural cooperation between member states has become a community competency since its inclusion in 1992 in the [[Maastricht Treaty]].<ref name="Bozoki">{{cite web|last=Bozoki|first=Andras|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Cultural Policy and Politics in the European Union|work=|publisher=|date=|url=http://137.204.115.130/activities/download/Bozoki/Cultural%20Policy%20and%20Politics%20in%20the%20European%20Union.pdf|format=PDF|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref> Actions taken in the cultural area by the European Union include the [[Culture 2000]] 7-year programme,<ref name="Bozoki"/> the [[European Cultural Month]] event,<ref name"Culture Month">{{cite web|last=|first=|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=European Culture Month|work=|publisher=[[Europa (web portal)]]|date=|url=http://ec.europa.eu/culture/eac/other_actions/cap_europ/cap_eu_en.html|format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref> the [[Media Plus]] programme,<ref name"Media Plus">{{cite web|last=|first=|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Media programme|work=|publisher=philatelism.com|date=[[2007-07-05]]|url=http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/media/index_en.htm|format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref> and the [[European Capital of Culture]] programme — where one or more cities in the EU are selected for one year to assist cultural development of the city.<ref name"Capital Culture">{{cite web|last=Bozoki|first=Andras|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=European Capitals of Culture|work=|publisher=[[Europa (web portal)]]|date=|url=http://ec.europa.eu/culture/eac/other_actions/cap_europ/cap_eu_en.html|format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref> In addition, the Union gives grants to cultural projects (233 in 2004) and has launched a webportal dedicated to Europe and Culture, responding to the European Council's expressed desire to see the Commission and the member states "promote the networking of cultural information to enable all citizens to access European cultural content by the most advanced technological means."<ref name"Culture Portal">{{cite web|last=|first=|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Cultural heritage as a vehicle of cultural identity|work=|publisher=philatelism.com|date=[[2007-07-05]]|url=http://ec.europa.eu/culture/portal/activities/heritage/cultural_heritage_vehic_en.htm|format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref>
+===Sport===
+[[Image:Campnoumatch.jpg|thumb|190px|[[Football (soccer)|Football]] is the most popular sport in the EU countries([[:en:Nou Camp|Camp Nou]] in [[Barcelona]], [[Spain]])]]
+{{main|Sport policies of the European Union}}
 [[Sport policies of the European Union|Sport policy]] is largely the domain of the member states, with the EU mostly playing an indirect role. Recently the EU launched an anti-doping convention. The role of the EU might increase in the future, if (for example) the [[Reform Treaty]] were to be ratified by all member states.<ref name"EUO Sport">{{cite web|last=Goldirova|first=Renata|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=Brussels' first-ever move into sport area set to spark controversy|work=|publisher=EU Observer|date=[[2007-07-11]]|url=http://euobserver.com/9/24455|format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref> Other policies of the EU can have an impact on sports, for example the freedom of employment which was at the core of the [[Bosman ruling]], which prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with EU nationality.<ref name"BBC Boseman">{{cite web|last=Fordyce|first=Tom|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=10 years since Bosman|work=|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=[[2007-07-11]]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/4528732.stm|format=|doi=|accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref>
+Sports, including [[spectator sports]], are popular in EU countries, the most popular being [[Football (soccer)|football]]. [[Cycling]], [[golf]], [[tennis]], and [[field hockey]] are also widely watched and played in the EU. Other sports are favourites in fewer countries, such as [[basketball]], [[ice hockey]], [[Rugby football|rugby]], [[team handball|handball]], and [[motorsports]]; and several sports are only played to a significant extent in one or a few countries (e.g. [[cricket]] in the United Kingdom, [[hurling]], [[Gaelic handball]] and [[Gaelic football]] in the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, and [[korfball]] in the Netherlands and Belgium).
+Although it recently launched an anti-doping convention, the European Union plays a minor and mostly indirect role in sport policy. Sports are normally considered to be outside the [[principle of conferral|competences conferred]] by the member states to the European Union. Sports are also organised nationally, on a European continental level (which is not the same as the level of the European Union), or globally. The European Union does not have specific sports policies. The role of the EU could increase, if (for example) the [[European Constitution]] were to be ratified.
 ==Education and science==