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Isaaq Sultanate

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This article is about the early modern Somali sultanate. For the clan, see Isaaq.
Isaaq Sultanate
Saldanadda Isaaq (Somali)
سَلْدَنَدْدَ إساقْ (Somali)
السلطنة الإسحاقية (Arabic)
1749–1884
Flag of isxaaq
A banner used by the Adal Sultanate and later the Isaaq on key religious shrines[1]
Extent of the Isaaq clan-family at the end of the 19th century
Extent of the Isaaq clan-family at the end of the 19th century
CapitalHargeisa
Common languagesArabic
Religion
Sunni Islam
GovernmentMonarchy
Sultan 
• ~1700s
Guled Abdi (Traditional Chief)
• 1750–1808 (first Sultan)
Guled Abdi
• 1870–1884 (last)
Deria Hassan
History 
• Established
1749
• Disestablished
1884
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Adal Sultanate
British Somaliland
Today part ofSomaliland

The Isaaq Sultanate (Somali: Saldanadda Isaaq, Wadaad: سَلْدَنَدْدَ إساقْ, Arabic: السلطنة الإسحاقية) was a Muslim sultanate that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa in the 18th and 19th centuries.[2][3][4][5] The kingdom spanned the territories of the Isaaq clan in modern-day Somaliland. It was governed by the Rer Guled branch of the Garhajis clan[2] and is the pre-colonial predecessor to the modern Republic of Somaliland.[6][7][8]

History

[edit]

Origins

[edit]

Somali genealogical tradition places the origin of the Isaaq tribe in the 12th or 13th century with the arrival of Sheikh Ishaaq Bin Ahmed (Sheikh Ishaaq) was one of the scholars who crossed the sea from Arabia to the Horn of Africa.[9][10] Sheikh Ishaaq purportedly settled in the coastal town of Maydh in modern-day northeastern Somaliland. Hence, Sheikh Ishaaq married two local women in Somaliland that left him eight sons, one of them being Ismail (Garhajis).[11]

By the 1300s the Isaaq clans united to defend their inhabited territories and resources during clan conflicts against migrating clans, and by the 1600s the Somali lands split into numerous clan states, among them the Isaaq.[12] According to oral tradition, prior to the Guled Dynasty the Isaaq clan-family were ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch starting from, descendants of Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo, the eldest son of Sheikh Ishaaq. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers in total who ruled for centuries starting from the 13th century.[13][14] The last Tolje'lo ruler Boqor Harun (Somali: Boqor Haaruun), nicknamed Dhuh Barar (Somali: Dhuux Baraar) was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge amongst the Habr Awal with whom they still mostly live.[15][16][17]

Establishment

[edit]

The modern Guled Dynasty of the Isaaq Sultanate was established in the middle of the 18th century by Sultan Guled of the Eidagale clan of Isaaq clan family . His coronation took place after the victorious battle of Lafaruug, in which Guled Abdi successfully led the Isaaq and was crowned by the Isaaq clan after defeating the Absame tribes. After witnessing his leadership and courage, the Isaaq chiefs recognized his father Abdi who refused the position instead relegating the title to his underage son Guled while the father acted as the regent until the son came of age. Guled was crowned the as the first Sultan of the Isaaq clan in July 1750.[18] Sultan Guled thus ruled the Isaaq up until his death in 1808.[19]

After the death of Sultan Guled a dispute arose as to which of his 12 sons would succeed him. His eldest son Roble Guled, who was due to be crowned, was advised by his brother Du'ale to raid and capture livestock belonging to the Ogaden so as to serve the Isaaq sultans and dignitaries who would attend, as part of a plot to discredit the would-be sultan and usurp the throne. After the dignitaries were made aware of this fact by Du'ale they removed Roble from the line of succession and offered to crown Jama, his half brother, who promptly rejected the offer and suggested that Farah, Du'ale's full brother of Du'ale, son of Guled's fourth wife Ambaro Me'ad Gadidbe, be crowned.[19] The Isaaq subsequently crowned Farah.[7][19]

Early European Conflict

[edit]
Main article: Battle of Berbera

With the new European incursion into the Gulf of Aden and Horn of Africa contact between Somalis and Europeans on African soil would happen again for the first time since the Ethiopian–Adal war.[20] When a British vessel named the Mary Anne attempted to dock in Berbera's port in 1825 it was attacked and multiple members of the crew were massacred by the Garhajis. In response the Royal Navy enforced a blockade and some accounts narrate a bombardment of the city.[21][3] In 1827 two years later the British arrived and extended an offer to relieve the blockade which had halted Berbera's lucrative trade in exchange for indemnity. Following this initial suggestion the Battle of Berbera 1827 would break out.[22][3] After the Isaaq defeat, 15,000 Spanish dollars was to be paid by the Isaaq Sultanate leaders for the destruction of the ship and loss of life.[21] In the 1820s Sultan Farah Sultan Guled of the Isaaq Sultanate penned a letter to Sultan bin Saqr Al Qasimi of Ras Al Khaimah requesting military assistance and joint religious war against the British.[23] This would not materialize as Sultan Saqr was incapacitated by prior Persian Gulf campaign of 1819 and was unable to send aid to Berbera. Alongside their stronghold in the Persian Gulf & Gulf of Oman the Qasimi were very active both militarily and economically in the Gulf of Aden and were given to plunder and attack ships as far west as the Mocha on the Red Sea.[24] They had numerous commercial ties with the Somalis, leading vessels from Ras Al Khaimah and the Persian Gulf to regularly attend trade fairs in the large ports of Berbera and Zeila and were very familiar with the Isaaq Sultanate respectively.[25][26]

Berbera Civil War

[edit]

One of the most important settlements of the Sultanate was the city of Berbera which was one of the key ports of the Gulf of Aden. Caravans would pass through Hargeisa and the Sultan would collect tribute and taxes from traders before they would be allowed to continue onwards to the coast. Following a massive conflict between the Ayal Ahmed and Ayal Yunis branches of the Habr Awal over who would control Berbera in the mid-1840s, Sultan Farah brought both subclans before a holy relic from the tomb of Aw Barkhadle. An item that is said to have belonged to Bilal Ibn Rabah.[27]

When any grave question arises affecting the interests of the Isaakh tribe in general. On a paper yet carefully preserved in the tomb, and bearing the sign-manual of Belat [Bilal], the slave of one [of] the early khaleefehs, fresh oaths of lasting friendship and lasting alliances are made...In the season of 1846 this relic was brought to Berbera in charge of the Haber Gerhajis, and on it the rival tribes of Aial Ahmed and Aial Yunus swore to bury all animosity and live as brethren.[27]

Fracture and Decline

[edit]

Habr Yunis Sultanate

[edit]
Main article: Habr Yunis Sultanate

During the reign of Sultan Farah Guled the Habr Yunis would break from his rule and form the Habr Yunis Sultanate. Sultan Deria Sugulle would have established his own capital at Wadhan and his own taxes.[28] The Habr Yunis Sultanate inherited the profitable trade routes leading into the Sheikh mountains and Burao from the Isaaq Sultanate and reached a pinnacle under Sultan Hersi Aman before being engulfed in civil wars after his considerable power caused a rebellion to break out in the late 1870s.[29][30]

The split was noticeable and Lieutenant C.P Rigby in the year 1848 writes about the two Sultans and the capital of the Isaaq at Toon.

The Hubr Gajis tribe and its different branches are governed by two Sultans, named Sultan Deriah [Habr Yunis Sultan] and Sultan Farah: the residence of the latter is at Toro.[31]

Internal Eidagale Conflicts

[edit]

During the reign of the last ruler of the Isaaq Sultanate Deria Hassan tensions were high between his Rer Guled and another subclan of Eidagale. The legendary Eidagale warrior and poet Hussein Hasan (Somali: Xuseen Xassan) who hailed from the Rer Guled was prideful and urged them to continue the conflict. Standing against him was a similarly skilled poet and warrior Hersi Absiyeh (Somali: Xirsi Cabsiye), a prominent member of the closely related Rer Abdi Bari who were warring with the Rer Guled. He called for the regular shir or meeting of subclans where he would take council and advise on what decisions to make next. Sultan Deria ruled that blood payment or mag was sufficient for both parties to exchange at the shir with the Rer Guled losing six and the Abdi Bari six as well. Hussein Hasan was boastful and urged for continued conflict with a rousing gabay rejecting the decision.[32]

Sultan Deria responded by sending Hussein away to Berbera and then resuming the shir. Absiyeh was made to swear a solemn oath not to recite a gabay following the Sultan's decision but he could not resist, especially since Hussein was away. Hussein returned and lamented that he missed the occasion and the two other men (Deria and Absiyeh) prevailed that day.[32]

Egyptian occupation

[edit]
Main article: Egyptian occupation of Hararghe

In 1870 The Egyptians occupied Hargeisa after failing to take over Aussa.[34] They continued on to invade Berbera, Zeila, Sagallo, and Bulhar.[35][36] They helped rebuild a dying Berbera economy, and established Berbera as the capital of the Khedive in east Africa. Although they did not control northern Somaliland for long they did build lighthouses, piers, improved coastal ports, and promoted Islam.[37] In 1883 the Egyptians who were being pressured by the British decided to evacuate the Somali, and Oromo cities. During the Egyptian rule the Somalis controlled the Zeila-Harar trade route, and the Oromos shared the Berbera-Harar trade route.[38] British officer Hunters carried a number of surveys in the Somali coast. He described the Habr Awal as a friendly people who lived between Harar, and Berbera, and that they supported the Egyptian capture of many towns. In 1884 the Egyptians, and Habr Awal burnt down a number of Bursuuk villages, in retaliation the Bursuuk attacked Habr Awal caravans on their way to Berbera.[39] During the withdrawal period officer Hunters was more concerned on Berbera as rumour spread about the Mahdiyya of Sudan. He worried about Berbera more than Harar, because the Habr Awal Somalis had murdered the Governor of Berbera Abd- Al Rahman Bey. They did this because Abd Al Rahman had murdered a Somali in an attempt to rob a caravan. He also feared the Issa Somali would invade Berbera so he ordered a British warship be anchored at Berbera so the British could detect any Somali movement in the area.[40] Hunter also writes that the Emir of Zeila, Abu Bakr was possibly planning an invasion of Berbera. Hinter describes Abu Bakr as a Afar businessmen, and Emir who held great influence over the Afar, and Somalis. He also describes him as a slave master, and that he controlled slave trade in the read sea. Hunters describes the Governor of Berbera as a man who was ready to take any command, but like all his friends was thuggish, and rude.[41] In 1884 the British signed a deal with the Habr Awal which allowed British presence in Berbera for a while.[37] in October 1884 the Egyptians left Berbera.

Incorporation into British Somaliland

[edit]
Eidagale warriors on horseback

By the early 1880s the Isaaq Sultanate had been reduced to the Ciidangale confederation with the Eidagale, and Ishaaq Arreh subclan of the Habr Yunis remaining, although the sultan still enjoyed widespread prestige among the Isaaq.[42] In 1884–1886 the British signed treaties with the coastal subclans and had not yet penetrated the interior in any significant way.[43] Sultan Deria Hassan remained de facto master of Hargeisa and its environs. Working in conjunction with Mohammed Abdullah Hassan and the Dervish Movement he would exchange letters with Hassan in the first year of the movement's foundation and incited an insurrection in Hargeisa in 1900.[44]

Economy

[edit]

The Sultanate had a robust economy and trade was significant at the main port of Berbera but also eastwards along the coast. The Berbera trade fair was the major commercial event of the year with tens of thousands descending on the town.[45]

Berbera held an annual fair during the cool rain-free months between October and April. This long drawn out market handled immense quantities of coffee, gum Arabic, myrrh and other commodities. These goods in the early nineteenth century were almost exclusively handled by Somalis who, Salt says, had "a kind of navigation act by which they exclude the Arab vessels from their ports and bring the produce of their country either to Aden or Mocha in their own dows."

Eidagale and Habr Yunis traders held the southerly trade routes into the Haud region and the Habr Awal the westerly ones, with the Habr Je'lo maintaining the easterly routes towards Berbera and their substantial frankincense trade exporting from Heis, Karin, and Ceel Daraad.[46] The western and southern routes would merge at Hargeisa. The Isaaq were also the predominant Somali traders in the Yemeni ports of Mukalla, Mocha and Aden.[47] In addition the sultanate produced ghee, myrrh, ivory and gum arabic, which would then be exported to Yemen.[48]

Administration

[edit]
An Isaaq banner used on key religious sites derived from an Adal Sultanate flag

The Sultan of the Isaaq often called for shirs or regular meetings where he would be informed and advised by leading elders or religious figures on what decisions to make. In the case of the Dervish movement Sultan Deria Hassan had chosen not to join after receiving counsel from Sheikh Madar. He addressed early tensions between the Saad Musa and Eidagale upon the former's settlement into the growing town of Hargeisa in the late 19th century.[49]

The Sultan would also be responsible for organizing grazing rights and in the late 19th century new agricultural spaces.[50] The allocation of resources and sustainable use of them was also a matter that Sultans concerned themselves with and was crucial in an arid region. In the 1870s there was a famous meeting between Sheikh Madar and Sultan Deria proclaimed that hunting and tree cutting in the vicinity of Hargeisa would be banned [51]

The holy relics from Aw Barkhadle would be brought and the Isaaqs would swear oaths upon it in presence of the Sultan whenever fierce internal combat broke out.[27] Aside from the leading Sultan of Isaaq there were numerous Akils, Garaads and subordinate Sultans alongside religious authorities that constituted the Sultanate before some would declare their own independence or simply break from his authority.

Rulers

[edit]

The Isaaq Sultanate has ten rulers in total, five prior to the creation of British Somaliland in 1884 in addition to five afterwards. Historically Sultans would be chosen by a committee of several important members of the various Isaaq clans. Sultans were usually buried at Toon south of Hargeisa which was a significant site and the capital of the Sultanate during Farah Guled's rule.[31]

NameLifespanReign startReign endNotesFamilyImage
Sultan Guled Abdi
  • Guled ibn Abdallah
  • Somali: Guuleed Cabdi
17501808
Sultan Farah Guled
  • Farah ibn Guled
  • Somali: Faarax Guuleed
18081845Partook in the British attack on Berbera
Sultan Hassan Farah
  • Hassan ibn Farah
  • Somali: Xasan Faarax
18451870Mediated the conflict between the Ayal Ahmed and Ayal Yunis branches of the Habr Awal
Sultan Deria Hassan
  • Deria ibn Hassan
  • Somali: Diiriye Xasan
18701943Establishment of British Somaliland protectorate in 1884
Sultan Abdillahi Deria
  • Abdallah ibn Deria
  • Somali: Cabdillaahi Diiriye
19431967
Sultan Rashid Abdillahi
  • Rashid ibn Abdallah
  • Somali: Rashiid Cabdillaahi
19671969
Sultan Abdiqadir Abdillahi
  • Abdulqadir ibn Abdallah
  • Somali: Cabdiqaadir Cabdillaahi
19691975
Sultan Mahamed Abdiqadir
  • Muhammad ibn Abdulqadir
  • Somali: Maxamed Cabdiqaadir
19752021
Sultan Daud Mahamed
  • Da'ud ibn Muhammad
  • Somali: Daa'uud Maxamed
2021Ongoing

Family tree

[edit]
House of Guled
Guled Abdi
Guuleed Cabdi
r. 1750–1808
Farah Guled
Faarax Guuleed
r. 1808–1845
Hassan Farah
Xasan Faarax
r. 1845–1870
Deria Hassan
Diiriye Xasan
r. 1870–1939
Abdillahi
Deria
Cabdillaahi Diiriye
r. 1939–1967
Rashid
Abdillahi
Rashiid
Cabdillaahi
r. 1967–1969		Abdiqadir
Abdillahi
Cabdiqaadir
Cabdillaahi
r. 1969–1975
Mahamed
Abdiqadir
Maxamed
Cabdiqaadir
r. 1975–2021
Daud
Mahamed
Daa'uud
Maxamed
r. 2021–present

Legacy

[edit]
Sultan Abdillahi Deria (Left ) with Habr Awal Sultan Abdulrahman Deria (Right) in London 1955 to petition for the Haud Reserved Area.

Amongst the Isaaq the traditional institution and leadership of the clan survived the British Somaliland period into present times. The Rer Guled Sultans, although no longer ruling vast territory, and with separate Isaaq subclans having their own Sultans, still enjoy primus inter pares status and retain the title of Suldaanka Guud ee Isaaq (Grand Sultan of the Isaaq). Sultan Deria Hassan continued in his role until his death in 1939, with his son and successor Sultan Abdillahi Deria strongly involved in the independence movement of British Somaliland, having led a delegation of politicians and Sultans to the United Kingdom in order to petition and pressure the government to return the Haud Reserved Area that had been ceded to Ethiopia by the British.[52][53] Sultan Rashid Abdillahi likewise was also active in independence and post-independence politics, being elected as the Vice President of the National Assembly of Somalia in 1966,[54] and representing Somalia at the world parliamentary conference in 1967.[55]

With the collapse of the Somali Republic, and the subsequent Somaliland war of independence in the 80s and 90s, Sultan Mahamed Abdiqadir would be heavily involved in the peace process and reconciliation of the rebirthed Somaliland. With Somaliland's independence in 1991 the Isaaq sultans assumed the title of Grand Sultan of Somaliland (Suldaanka Guud ee Soomaaliland).[56][57][58]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ أل شيخ عبدلله ري اشأل صومالي, كشف السدول لريراش ,٥٠
  2. ^ a b "Somali Traditional States". www.worldstatesmen.org. Retrieved 2023-03-17.
  3. ^ a b c Ylönen, Aleksi Ylönen (28 December 2023). The Horn Engaging the Gulf Economic Diplomacy and Statecraft in Regional Relations. Bloomsbury. p. 113. ISBN 9780755635191.
  4. ^ Arafat, S. M. Yasir (2024). Suicidal Behavior in Muslim Majority Countries: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Prevention. Springer Nature. pp. 273–274. ISBN 978-981-97-2519-9.
  5. ^ Sabry, Fouad (2024-08-10). City State: Exploring Urban Governance in Modern Societies. One Billion Knowledgeable.
  6. ^ "Taariikhda Beerta Suldaan Cabdilaahi ee Hargeysa | Somalidiasporanews.com". Retrieved 2021-01-09.
  7. ^ a b Genealogies of the Somal. Eyre and Spottiswoode (London). 1896.
  8. ^ "Taariikhda Saldanada Reer Guuleed Ee Somaliland.Abwaan:Ibraahim-rashiid Cismaan Guure (aboor). | Togdheer News Network". Archived from the original on 2021-01-11. Retrieved 2021-08-09.
  9. ^ Rima Berns McGown, Muslims in the diaspora, (University of Toronto Press: 1999), pp. 27–28
  10. ^ I.M. Lewis, A Modern History of the Somali, fourth edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2002), p. 22
  11. ^ I.M. Lewis, A Modern History of the Somali, fourth edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2002), pp. 31 & 42
  12. ^ Minahan, James B. (2016-08-01). Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. pp. 184–185. ISBN 979-8-216-14892-0.
  13. ^ "Degmada Cusub Ee Dacarta Oo Loogu Wanqalay Munaasibad Kulmisay Madaxda Iyo Haldoorka Somaliland". Hubaal Media. 2017-10-07. Archived from the original on 2021-08-11. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  14. ^ "Taariikhda Toljecle". www.tashiwanaag.com. Retrieved 2021-08-09.
  15. ^ "Taariikhda Boqortooyadii Axmed Sheikh Isaxaaq ee Toljecle 1787". YouTube.
  16. ^ NEW ISSUES IN REFUGEE RESEARCH Working Paper No. 65 Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements in Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988 - 2000 Guido Ambroso, Table 1, pg.5
  17. ^ Hunt, John Anthony (1951). A General Survey of the Somaliland Protectorate 1944-1950: Final Report on "An Economic Survey and Reconnaissance of the British Somaliland Protectorate 1944-1950," Colonial Development and Welfare Scheme D. 484. To be purchased from the Chief Secretary. p. 169.
  18. ^ "Maxaad ka taqaana Saldanada Ugu Faca Weyn Beesha Isaaq oo Tirsata 300 sanno ku dhawaad?". 13 February 2021.
  19. ^ a b c Jama, Rashid (2012). Sheekadii Magan Suldaan Guuleed "Magan-Gaabo" (circa 1790-1840).
  20. ^ The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy, pg 9
  21. ^ a b Laitin, David D. (1977). Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience. 9780226467917. p. 70. ISBN 9780226467917.
  22. ^ J. A. Suárez (2023). Suárez, J. A. Geopolítica De Lo Desconocido. Una Visión Diferente De La Política Internacional [2023]. p. 227. ISBN 979-8393720292.
  23. ^ Al Qasimi, Sultan bin Muhammad (1996). رسالة زعماء الصومال إلى الشيخ سلطان بن صقر القاسمي (in Arabic). p. ١٧.
  24. ^ Davies, Charles E. (1997). The Blood-red Arab Flag: An Investigation Into Qasimi Piracy, 1797-1820. University of Exeter Press. p. 167. ISBN 9780859895095.
  25. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1965). "The Trade of the Gulf of Aden Ports of Africa in the Early Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries". Journal of Ethiopian Studies. 3 (1): 36–81. JSTOR 41965718.
  26. ^ Al Qasimi, Sultan bin Muhammad (1996). رسالة زعماء الصومال إلى الشيخ سلطان بن صقر القاسمي (in Arabic). p. ١٢.
  27. ^ a b c "The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society Volume 19 p.61-62". 1849.
  28. ^ d'Abbadie, Antoine (1890). Géographie de l'Ethiopie: ce que j'ai entendu, faisant suite à ce que j'ai vu. Mesnil. p. 334. ISBN 9781173215750.
  29. ^ The Academy: a weekly review of literature, science, and art. Volume 35, 1889, p.126
  30. ^ Andrzejewski, B.W. and I.M. Lewis, 1964, Somali Poetry: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p.106
  31. ^ a b The Transactions of the Bombay Geographical Society 1850, Volume 9, p.133
  32. ^ a b Orwin, Martin; Axmed, Rashiid (2009). War and Peace: An anthology of Somali literature Suugaanta Nabadda iyo Colaadda. Progressio. p. 209. ISBN 9781852873295.
  33. ^ War and Peace: An Anthology of Somali literature, p.210
  34. ^ Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (2003-02-25). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6604-1.
  35. ^ Lewis, I. M. (2017-02-03). Peoples of the Horn of Africa (Somali, Afar and Saho): North Eastern Africa Part I. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-30817-3.
  36. ^ Dumper, Michael (2007). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-919-5.
  37. ^ a b Lewis, I. M. (1999). A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-8258-3084-7.
  38. ^ Ben-Dror, Avishai (2018-08-23). Emirate, Egyptian, Ethiopian: Colonial Experiences in Late Nineteenth-Century Harar. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-5431-5.
  39. ^ Notes sur le Harar par M. Alfred Bardey. Paris: IMPRIMERIE NATIONALE. 1989. p. 55.
  40. ^ Ben-Dror, Avishai (2018-08-23). Emirate, Egyptian, Ethiopian: Colonial Experiences in Late Nineteenth-Century Harar. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-5431-5.
  41. ^ Ben-Dror, Avishai (2018-08-23). Emirate, Egyptian, Ethiopian: Colonial Experiences in Late Nineteenth-Century Harar. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-5431-5.
  42. ^ Vitturini, Elia (2023-07-27). The Gaboye of Somaliland: The Historical Process of Emancipation and Marginalisation. Ledizioni. ISBN 978-88-5526-981-0.
  43. ^ Hugh Chisholm (ed.), The encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information, Volume 25, (At the University press: 1911), p.383.
  44. ^ Parliamentary Papers: 1850-1908, Volume 48. H.M. Stationery Office. 1901. p. 65.
  45. ^ Pankhurst, R. (1965). Journal of Ethiopian Studies Vol. 3, No. 1. Institute of Ethiopian Studies. p. 45.
  46. ^ Lewis, I. M. (3 February 2017). I.M Lewis: Peoples of the Horn of Africa. Routledge. ISBN 9781315308173.
  47. ^ Hunter, Frederick (1877). An Account of the British Settlement of Aden in Arabia. Cengage Gale. p. 41.
  48. ^ Society, Royal Geographical (1849). The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society: JRGS. Murray. p. 62.
  49. ^ F.O.78/5031, Sayyid Mohamad To The Aidagalleh, Enclosed Sadler To Salisbury. 69, 20 August 1899
  50. ^ THE GABOYE OF SOMALILAND: LEGACIES OF MARGINALITY, TRAJECTORIES OF EMANCIPATION Elia Vitturini pg.129
  51. ^ WSP Transition Programme, War-torn Societies Project (2005). Rebuilding Somaliland: Issues and Possibilities, Volume 1. Red Sea Press. p. 214.
  52. ^ Mohamed, Jama (2002). Imperial Policies and Nationalism in The Decolonization of Somaliland, 1954-1960. The English Historical Review.
  53. ^ Mohamed, Jama (2002). Imperial Policies and Nationalism in The Decolonization of Somaliland, 1954-1960. The English Historical Review.
  54. ^ Congress, United States (1968). Congressional Record, Volume 114. p. 14.
  55. ^ Central Intelligence Agency, United States (1966). Daily Report, Foreign Radio Broadcasts, Issues 181-185. Ohio State University. p. 19.
  56. ^ ""Boqorka Beesha Direed Waa Maxamud Nuur Isaaq" Suldaanka Guud Ee Beelaha Somaliland. | Waaberi News". Retrieved 2021-07-22.
  57. ^ "Suldaanka Guud Ee Somaliland Oo Ku Baaqay In Aan La Aqbalin Wasiiradii Shalay Is Casilay". Goobjoog News (in Somali). 2015-10-27. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
  58. ^ "Hundreds Attend the burial of The Grand Sultan of Somaliland". Somaliland.com. Retrieved 2022-02-23.
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