Pskov Republic

Pskov Republic
Псковская республика
Pskov Republic Псковская республика
1348–1510
	Coat of arms
	Pskov Republic in 1400
Capital	Pskov
Common languages	Russian
Religion	Russian Orthodoxy
Demonym(s)	Pskovian
Government	Mixed
History
• Established	1348
• Treaty of Bolotovo	1348
• Viceroys appointed; by G/D Moscow	1399
• Vasili III declared; votchina	1510
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	Novgorod Republic
Grand Duchy of Moscow
Today part of	Estonia; Russia

The Pskov Republic (Russian: Псковская республика, romanized: Pskovskaya respublika) was a city-state in northern Russia. It won its formal independence from the Novgorod Republic in 1348. Its capital city was Pskov and its territory was roughly equivalent to modern-day Pskov Oblast.

History

Origins

After the disintegration of Kievan Rus' in the 12th century, the city of Pskov and its dependent territory became part of the Novgorod Republic, but it continued to enjoy self-government under the supervision of a posadnik, or chief executive, that was appointed by Novgorod.^[1] Pskov had the status of a borough (Russian: пригород, romanized: prigorod), but was given the unique right to have boroughs of its own, with Izborsk being the most ancient among them.^[2] Due to Pskov's leading role in the struggle against the Livonian Order, its influence grew significantly within the republic. The long reign of Daumantas (r. 1266–1299), and especially his victory in the Battle of Rakvere in 1268, ushered in a period of significant autonomy, as well as a state of peace with the Livonian Order.^[3]^[4] Lithuania's expansion began to penetrate Pskov when Gediminas responded to the Pskovites' request to send a prince in 1323.^[5]^[6]

Prince Aleksandr of Tver was granted sanctuary by the Pskovites in 1327 after he had fled Tver following an anti-Tatar uprising that was subsequently crushed by a punitive force dispatched by the khan of the Golden Horde.^[7]^[8] Aleksandr was appointed as the prince of Pskov and an agreement was reached in which the Pskovites promised to "not to hand him over to the Russian princes".^[7] At the behest of Ivan I of Moscow, the head of the Russian Orthodox Church excommunicated Aleksandr as well as the people of Pskov.^[9] Aleksandr then fled to Lithuania and, after a treaty was signed between Pskov and the head of the church, the ban was lifted.^[9] Aleksandr later returned to Pskov in 1331 and he once again served as their prince until 1337, when he went to the Horde to recover the principality of Tver.^[10]

In August 1348, Magnus IV of Sweden captured the key fortress of Orekhov located at the eastern end of the Neva.^[11] The Pskovites sent a small detachment and took advantage of the situation by only agreeing to accompany the Novgorodian army on the condition that Pskov would be formally granted its independence.^[11] Novgorod sent an allied force to lay siege to the fortress and signed the Treaty of Bolotovo on the way to Orekhov.^[12] As per the terms of the treaty, the posadniki of Novgorod no longer had any administrative or judicial function in Pskov and the law-courts of the archbishop of Novgorod would only be run by representatives chosen by the Pskovites.^[13] In return, Pskov pledged to aid Novgorod in the event that it was attacked.^[13] Despite this, the Pskovites refused to aid Novgorod in its siege of Orekhov and the detachment left.^[13]

Relationship with Lithuania and Moscow

Following the death of the Lithuanian governor in April 1349, the Pskovites decided to cut ties with Algirdas and his son Andrei.^[14] Algirdas declared war on Pskov but, due to a string of military defeats earlier, he was limited to arresting Pskovian merchants and sending Andrei to raid the territory of Pskov.^[14] Although there is no mention of a Muscovite governor arriving in Pskov or negotiations with Moscow at the time in any of the sources, Pskov likely received military support from Moscow, and by the end of the decade, was within Moscow's sphere of influence.^[15] Simeon of Moscow was also able to establish a dominant position in Novgorod, and as a result, he was able to eliminate Lithuania's influence in northwest Russia.^[16]

For the most of the second half of the 14th century, Pskov was in the sphere of influence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. This changed after Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania signed the Treaty of Salynas with the Livonian Order, promising to help the Order with conquering Pskov in exchange for the Order's support elsewhere. Prince Ivan Andreyevich left the city and Pskov sent emissaries to Grand Duke Vasily I of Moscow asking for one of his vassal rulers to be the new prince of Pskov. It remained dependent on Moscow until the end of the Pskov Republic in 1510, helping Moscow in its conflicts with Lithuania and Novgorod.^[17]

Final years

The Teutonic knights in Pskov, screenshot from Sergei Eisenstein's film *Alexander Nevsky*

In 1501, the armies of Pskov and Moscow were defeated in the Battle of the Siritsa River by the Livonian Order, but the city withstood a subsequent siege.

In 1510, the Grand Prince of Moscow Vasili III arrived in Pskov and pronounced it his votchina, thus putting an end to the Pskov Republic and its autonomous rights. The city's ruling body, the veche, was dissolved and some 300 families of rich Pskovians were deported from the city. Their estates were distributed among the Muscovite service class people. From that time on, the city of Pskov and the lands around it continued to develop as a part of the centralized Russian state, preserving some of its economic and cultural traditions.

Geography

Despite being a city-state, Pskov also extended over a large amount of territory, like Novgorod. It covered the territory between Novgorod and the lands inhabited by the Baltic peoples, reaching the Gulf of Finland. As a result of its geographic position, Pskov made frequent contact with Lithuania and the Teutonic Knights. The Hanseatic League also had an office in Pskov, which allowed the city to have commercial contacts with distant states. Pskov did not have a relatively empty hinterland, which prevented it from engaging in expansionism unlike Novgorod, which had a vast hinterland in the Russian North.^[18]

Internal organization

The Pskov Republic had well-developed farming, fishing, blacksmithing, jewellery-making and construction industries. Exchange of commodities within the republic itself and its trade with Novgorod and other Russian cities, the Baltic region, and Western Europe cities made Pskov one of the biggest handicraft and trade centres of Rus'. As opposed to the Novgorod Republic, Pskov never had big feudal landowners: estates were smaller and even more scattered than of those in Novgorod.^[19] The estates of Pskovian monasteries and churches were much smaller as well. Some land was owned by smerds while other izorniki did not own the land they worked and were obliged to pay rent – between a quarter and a half of the harvest. A farmer who had no debts to his landlord could leave him only on a certain day of the year.^[20]^[21]

The government of the Pskov Republic consisted of the veche (popular assembly), posadnichestvo (mayoralty) and the prince (directly or through a viceroy). Mayors (posadniki) from all parts of the city, together with one or more Lord Mayors and former mayors formed the Council of Lords (sovet gospod, boyarskiy sovet) which was the main executive organ of the state. The offices of mayors (posadniki) became a privilege of several noble (boyar) families.^[22]

The veche had legislative powers, it could appoint military commanders and hear ambassadors' reports. It also approved expenses such as grants to princes and payments to builders of walls, towers and bridges.^[23] Veche gathered at the Trinity Cathedral, which held the archives of the veche and important private papers and state documents. The veche assembly included posadniks, "middle" and common people.^[24] The historians differ on the extent to which the veche was dominated by the elites, with some saying that the real power was in the hands of boyars and others considering veche a democratic institution.^[25]

Conflicts were common and the confrontation between the veche and the posadniks in 1483–1484 led to the execution of one posadnik and to the confiscation of property of three other posadniks who fled to Moscow.^[26] The power of the prince was limited but – in contrast to the Novgorod Republic – he still retained important administrative and judicial functions, the latter carried out jointly with the posadnik.^[27]^[28]

The legal code of Pskov, known as the Pskov Judicial Charter, was enacted by its veche in 1397, with redactions until 1467.^[29] Pskov's legal code is regarded as a monument of Russian law.^[29] The principal subjects of the code included commercial law, criminal law, debts, evidence, inheritance, the law of procedure, the legal position of certain peasant classes, as well as the rights of certain officials.^[30] The Charter of Pskov was an important source for the Sudebnik of 1497 under Ivan III, the first collection of laws of the newly unified state.^[31]

Like Novgorod, Pskov was divided into several kontsy (lit. 'ends'). There were four kontsy in the 14th century, as the city was growing and a new wall was constructed in 1465 the new ends were created. Each end had its central church which housed the archive, treasury and refectory where holiday feasts were held. The ends played a prominent role in the government: often delegations sent by Pskov had representatives from all the ends and each end administered a part of the territory of the republic outside of the capital city.^[32]

Pskov remained dependent on Novgorod in ecclesiastic all matters during the republican period. A religious sect whose followers were known as the strigolniki was active in the city in the second half of the 14th century and the beginning of the 15th century.

Trade and economy

Pskov, along with Novgorod, was an important centre of trade between Russia and Western Europe. Already in the 13th century German merchants were present in the Zapskovye area of Pskov and the Hanseatic League had a trading post in the same area in the first half of the 16th century which moved to Zavelichye after a fire in 1562.^[33]^[34] Pskov's main trade partners were Riga, Reval and Dorpat.^[35] The wars with Livonian Order, Poland-Lithuania and Sweden interrupted the trade but it was maintained until the 17th century, with Swedish merchants gaining the upper hand eventually.^[34]

Culture

Pskov churches feature many distinctive elements: corbel arches, church porches, exterior galleries and zvonnitsa bell towers. These features were introduced by Pskov masons to Muscovy, where they constructed numerous buildings during the 15th and 16th centuries. Out of all non-religious construction, only the fortresses in Pskov, Izborsk and Gdov have survived.

The literature of Pskov land was an integral part of the medieval Russian literature. The chronicle-writing started in the 13th century, at first dealing mostly with topics of local interest. By the 15th century, the chronicles became more detailed and described events in Muscovy, Novgorod, Lithuania and the Golden Horde. The most important works written in Pskov are the Story of Dovmont describing the coming of Dovmont to the city, his baptism and subsequent victories, The Life of Saint Euphrosynus and The Address of Hegumen Pamfil which contains one of the earliest descriptions of Ivan Kupala rituals.^[36]

The downfall of Pskov is recounted in the Story of the Taking of Pskov (1510), which was lauded by D. S. Mirsky as "one of the most beautiful short stories of Old Russia. The history of the Muscovites' leisurely perseverance is told with admirable simplicity and art. An atmosphere of descending gloom pervades the whole narrative: all is useless, and whatever the Pskovites can do, the Muscovite cat will take its time and eat the mouse when and how it pleases".^[37]

List of princes

1342–1349 Andrei of Polotsk (Gedeminids)
1349–1360 Eustaphy Feodorovich (Prince of Izborsk)
1360–1369 Alexander of Polotsk
1375–1377 Matvei
1377–1399 Andrei of Polotsk
1386–1394 Ivan Andreyevich
1399–1510 viceroys of the Grand Duchy of Moscow

References

^ Fennell 2014, p. 17.
^ Feldbrugge 2017, p. 521.
^ Fennell 2023, p. 98, 270.
^ Valerov 2004, p. 186.
^ Martin 2006, p. 148.
^ Valerov 2004, pp. 190–191.
^ ^a ^b Fennell 2023, p. 116.
^ Crummey 2014, p. 40.
^ ^a ^b Fennell 2023, p. 117.
^ Martin 2006, p. 140.
^ ^a ^b Fennell 2023, p. 267.
^ Fennell 2023, pp. 267–268.
^ ^a ^b ^c Fennell 2023, p. 268.
^ ^a ^b Fennell 2023, p. 271.
^ Fennell 2023, p. 272.
^ Fennell 2023, p. 286, One of the most important results of Semen's policy of firmness and friendship with Novgorod was the neutralization of Lithuanian influence in the north-west Russian lands.
^ Arakcheev, Vladimir (2004). Средневековый Псков. Власть, общество, повседневная жизнь в XV—XVII веках (in Russian). Псков. pp. 10, 40. ISBN 5945421073.
^ Feldbrugge 2017, p. 524.
^ Масленникова, Н. Н. (1978). Псковская земля // Аграрная история Северо-Запада России XVI века. Leningrad: Nauka.
^ Kafengauz, Berngardt (1969). Древний Псков. Очерки по истории феодальной республики (in Russian). Nauka. p. 133.
^ Arakcheev, Vladimir (2004). Средневековый Псков. Власть, общество, повседневная жизнь в XV—XVII веках (in Russian). Псков. pp. 63–78. ISBN 5945421073.
^ Kafengauz, Berngardt (1969). Древний Псков. Очерки по истории феодальной республики (in Russian). Nauka. pp. 46, 51, 52.
^ Kafengauz, Berngardt (1969). Древний Псков. Очерки по истории феодальной республики (in Russian). Nauka. pp. 98–105.
^ Kafengauz, Berngardt (1969). Древний Псков. Очерки по истории феодальной республики (in Russian). Nauka. p. 111.
^ Kafengauz, Berngardt (1969). Древний Псков. Очерки по истории феодальной республики (in Russian). Nauka. pp. 85–90, 110.
^ Kafengauz, Berngardt (1969). Древний Псков. Очерки по истории феодальной республики (in Russian). Nauka. p. 74.
^ Lawrence Langer, "The Posadnichestvo of Pskov: Some Aspects of Urban Administration in Medieval Russia.” Slavic Review 43, no. 1 (1984): 46–62.
^ Arakcheev, Vladimir (2004). Средневековый Псков. Власть, общество, повседневная жизнь в XV—XVII веках (in Russian). Псков. pp. 58–60. ISBN 5945421073.
^ ^a ^b Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 63.
^ Feldbrugge 2017, p. 182.
^ Feldbrugge 2017, p. 184.
^ Arakcheev, Vladimir (2004). Средневековый Псков. Власть, общество, повседневная жизнь в XV—XVII веках (in Russian). Псков. pp. 13–15. ISBN 5945421073.
^ Dollinger, Philippe (1999). The German Hansa. Psychology Press. p. 105. ISBN 9780415190732.
^ ^a ^b Аракчеев владимир Анатольевич, Псков и Ганза в эпоху средневековья, ООО "Дизайн экспресс", 2012 (in Russian)
^ Arakcheev, Vladimir (2004). Средневековый Псков. Власть, общество, повседневная жизнь в XV—XVII веках (in Russian). Псков. pp. 22–23. ISBN 5945421073.
^ Централизованная библиотечная система города Пскова, Литература Древнего Пскова (in Russian)
^ D. S. Mirsky. A History of Russian Literature. Northwestern University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8101-1679-0. Page 23.

Sources

Crummey, Robert O. (6 June 2014). The Formation of Muscovy 1300 - 1613. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-87199-6.
Feldbrugge, Ferdinand J. M. (2 October 2017). A History of Russian Law: From Ancient Times to the Council Code (Ulozhenie) of Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich of 1649. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-35214-8.
Fennell, John (13 October 2014). The Crisis of Medieval Russia 1200-1304. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-87314-3.
Fennell, John (15 November 2023). The Emergence of Moscow, 1304-1359. Univ of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-34759-5.
Martin, Janet (2006). Perrie, Maureen (ed.). The Cambridge History of Russia: Volume 1, From Early Rus' to 1689. Cambridge University Press. pp. 127–157. ISBN 978-0-521-81227-6.
Масленникова Н. Н. Присоединения Пскова к Русскому централизованному государству. Leningrad, 1955.
Riasanovsky, Nicholas Valentine; Steinberg, Mark D. (2019). A History of Russia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-064558-8.
Valerov, A. V. (2004). Новгород и Псков очерки политической истории Северо-Западной Руси XI-XIV веков. Saint Petersburg: Алетея. pp. 190–191. ISBN 5893296680.