Rashidun Caliphate

Rashidun Caliphate
ٱلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ (Arabic)
*al-Khilāfah ar-Rāšidah*
Rashidun Caliphate ٱلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ (Arabic); al-Khilāfah ar-Rāšidah
632–661
	The Rashidun Caliphate at its greatest extent under Uthman, c. 654
Capital	Medina (632–656); Kufa (656–661);
Official languages	Arabic
Common languages	Various regional languages
Religion	Islam
Caliph
• 632–634	Abu Bakr (first)
• 634–644	Umar
• 644–656	Uthman
• 656–661	Ali (last)
History
• Succession to Muhammad	632
• Conquest of Persia	633–654
• Ascension of Umar	634
• Assassination of Umar and Ascension of Uthman	644
• Assassination of Uthman and ascension of Ali	656
• Assassination of Ali	661
• First Fitna (internal conflict) ends after Hasan's abdication	661
Area
655	6,400,000 km2 (2,500,000 sq mi)
Currency	Dirham;
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	State of Medina
	Byzantine Empire
	Sasanian Empire
	Ghassanids
Umayyad Caliphate

The Rashidun Caliphate (Arabic: ٱلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ, romanized: al-Khilāfah ar-Rāšidah ) consisted of the first four successive caliphs (lit. 'successors') who led the Muslim community following the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 632 – Abu Bakr (r. 632–634), Umar (r. 634–644), Uthman (r. 644–656), and Ali (r. 656–661). It ended with the death of Ali and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 by Mu'awiya ibn Abu Sufyan (r. 661–680). During the Caliphate's existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in West Asia and Northeast Africa. In Sunni Islam, the caliphate is considered to have been 'rightly guided' (the meaning of al-Rāshidūn; الراشدون), meaning that it constitutes a model (sunna) to be followed and emulated from a religious point of view.^[3] The caliphs are also known in Muslim history as the "orthodox" or "patriarchal" caliphs.^[4]

The caliphate arose following Muhammad’s death in June 632 and the subsequent debate over the succession to his leadership. Muhammad's close companion Abu Bakr, of the Banu Taym clan, was elected the first caliph in Medina and he began the conquest of the Arabian Peninsula. His brief reign ended in August 634 when he died and was succeeded by Umar, his appointed successor from the Banu Adi clan. Under Umar, the caliphate expanded at an unprecedented rate, ruling more than two-thirds of the Byzantine Empire and nearly the entire Sasanian Empire. Umar was assassinated in November 644 and was succeeded by Uthman, a member of the Banu Umayya clan, who was elected by a six-person committee arranged by Umar. Under Uthman, the caliphate concluded its conquest of Persia in 651 and continued expeditions into the Byzantine territories.

Uthman was assassinated in June 656, and succeeded by Ali, a member of the Banu Hashim clan, who transferred the capital to Kufa. Ali presided over the civil war called the First Fitna as his suzerainty was unrecognized by Uthman's kinsman and Syria's governor Mu'awiya ibn Abu Sufyan (r. 661–680), who believed that Uthman's murderers should be punished immediately. Additionally, a third faction known as Kharijites, who were former supporters of Ali, rebelled against both Ali and Mu'awiya after refusing to accept the arbitration in the Battle of Siffin. The war led to the overthrow of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 by Mu'awiya. The civil war permanently consolidated the divide between Sunni and Shia Muslims, with Shia Muslims believing Ali to be the first rightful caliph and Imam after Muhammad, favouring his bloodline connection to Muhammad.^[5]

The Rashidun Caliphate is characterized by a 25-year period of rapid military expansion followed by a five-year period of internal strife. The Rashidun Army numbered more than 100,000 men at its peak. By the 650s, in addition to the Arabian Peninsula, the caliphate had subjugated the Levant to the Transcaucasus in the north; North Africa from Egypt to present-day Tunisia in the west; and the Iranian Plateau to parts of Central and South Asia in the east. The four Rashidun caliphs were chosen by a small electoral body – consisting of prominent members of the high-ranking companions of the Prophet – called shūrā (شُورَى, lit. 'consultation').^[6]

Etymology

The Arabic word rāshidūn (singular: rāshid راشد) means "rightly-guided". The reign of these four caliphs is considered in Sunni Islam to have been 'rightly-guided', meaning that it constitutes a model (sunnah) to be followed and emulated from a religious point of view.^[7] This term is not used by Shia Muslims, who reject the rule of the first three caliphs as illegitimate.^[8]

Origin

After Muhammad's death in 632 CE (11 AH), his Medinan companions debated which of them should succeed him in running the affairs of the Muslims while Muhammad's household was busy with his burial. Umar and Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah pledged their loyalty to Abu Bakr, with the Ansar and the Quraysh soon following suit. Abu Bakr adopted the title of Khalīfaṫ Rasūl Allāh (خَلِيفةُ رَسُولِ اللهِ, "Successor of the Messenger of God") or simply caliph.^[9] Abu Bakr embarked on campaigns to propagate Islam. First he would have to subdue the Arabian tribes, which had claimed that although they pledged allegiance to Muhammad and accepted Islam, they owed nothing to Abu Bakr. As a caliph, Abu Bakr was not a monarch and never claimed such a title; nor did any of his three successors. Rather, their election and leadership were based upon merit.^[10]^[11]^[12]^[13]

Notably, all four Rashidun Caliphs were connected to Muhammad through marriage, were early converts to Islam.^[14] According to Sunni Islam, they are among ten who were explicitly promised paradise, were his closest companions by association and support and were often highly praised by Muhammad and delegated roles of leadership within the nascent Muslim community; they are collectively known as the Rashidun, or "Rightly Guided" caliphs (الْخُلَفاءُ الرّاشِدُونَ, al-Khulafāʾ ar-Rāšidūn), a term derived from a famous^[15] Sunni hadith where Muhammad foretold that the caliphate after him would last for 30 years^[16] (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) and would then be followed by kingship (the Umayyad Caliphate being hereditary and often compared to a monarchy).^[17]^[18]^[19] The Rightly Guided Caliphate is also featured in other hadiths about endtimes in Sunan Abu Dawood and Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, where it is foretold they will be restored once again by God in the time before Judgement Day.^[20]

History

Timeline

(Note that a caliph's succession does not necessarily occur on the first day of the new year.)

Abu Bakr's reign (632–634)

Accession to Caliphate

After Muhammad's death in June 632, a gathering of the Ansar (lit. 'Helpers'), the natives of Medina, took place in the Saqifah (courtyard) of the Banu Sa'ida clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the Muslim community among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the Muhajirun (migrants from Mecca), though this has later become the subject of debate.^[21]

Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar, both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of the meeting became concerned about a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that any attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, the Quraysh, would likely result in dissension as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion, Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. He was countered with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue amongst themselves. Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men.^[22]

Abu Bakr was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of Caliph) as a result of Saqifah, though he did face contention as a result of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being Ali ibn Abi Talib, initially refused to acknowledge his authority.^[23] Ali may have been reasonably expected to assume leadership, being both cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad.^[24] The theologian Ibrahim al-Nakha'i stated that Ali also had support among the Ansar for his succession, explained by the genealogical links he shared with them. Whether his candidacy for the succession was raised during Saqifah is unknown, though it is not unlikely.^[25] Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali to gain his allegiance, resulting in an altercation which may have involved violence.^[26] However, after six months the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his fealty.^[27]

Ridda wars

Troubles emerged soon after Muhammad's death, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state. Apostasy spread to every tribe in the Arabian Peninsula with the exception of the people in Mecca and Medina, the Banu Thaqif in Ta'if and the Bani Abdul Qais of Oman. In some cases, entire tribes apostatized. Others merely withheld zakat, the alms tax, without formally challenging Islam. Many tribal leaders made claims to prophethood; some made it during the lifetime of Muhammad. The first incident of apostasy was fought and concluded while Muhammad still lived; a supposed prophet Aswad Ansi arose and invaded South Arabia;^[28] he was killed on 30 May 632 (6 Rabi' al-Awwal, 11 Hijri) by Governor Fērōz of Yemen, a Persian Muslim.^[29] The news of his death reached Medina shortly after the death of Muhammad. The apostasy of al-Yamama was led by another supposed prophet, Musaylimah,^[30] who arose before Muhammad's death; other centers of the rebels were in the Najd, Eastern Arabia (known then as al-Bahrayn) and South Arabia (known as al-Yaman and including the Mahra). Many tribes claimed that they had submitted to Muhammad and that with Muhammad's death, their allegiance was ended.^[30] Caliph Abu Bakr insisted that they had not just submitted to a leader but joined an ummah (أُمَّـة, community) of which he was the new head.^[30] The result of this situation was the Ridda wars.^[30]

Abu Bakr planned his strategy accordingly. He divided the Muslim army into several corps. The strongest corps, and the primary force of the Muslims, was the corps of Khalid ibn al-Walid. This corps was used to fight the most powerful of the rebel forces. Other corps were given areas of secondary importance in which to bring the less dangerous apostate tribes to submission. Abu Bakr's plan was first to clear Najd and Western Arabia near Medina, then tackle Malik ibn Nuwayrah and his forces between the Najd and al-Bahrayn, and finally concentrate against the most dangerous enemy, Musaylimah and his allies in al-Yamama. After a series of successful campaigns Khalid ibn al-Walid defeated Musaylimah in the Battle of Yamama.^[31] The Campaign on the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned on 18 March 633 with the Arabian peninsula united under the caliph in Medina. ^{[citation needed]}

Expeditions to Persia and Syria

After Abu Bakr unified Arabia under Islam, he began the incursions into the Byzantine Empire and the Sasanian Empire. Whether or not he intended a full-out imperial conquest is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history. Abu Bakr began with Iraq, the richest province of the Sasanian Empire.^[32] He sent general Khalid ibn al-Walid to invade the Sassanian Empire in 633.^[32] He thereafter also sent four armies to invade the Roman province of Syria,^[33] but the decisive operation was only undertaken when Khalid, after completing the conquest of Iraq, was transferred to the Syrian front in 634.^[34]

Umar's reign (634–644)

Umar ibn al-Khattab (Arabic: عمر ابن الخطاب, romanized: ʿUmar ibn al-Khattāb, c. 586–590 – 644^[35]^: 685) c. 2 November (Dhu al-Hijjah 26, 23 Hijri^[36]) was a leading companion and adviser to Muhammad, and father-in-law by his daughter Hafsa bint Umar's marrage to Muhammad. He was appointed by a dying Abu Bakr to be his successor and took power on 23 August 634, becoming the second Muslim caliph after Muhammad's death.^[37]

Upon his accession, Umar adopted the title amir al-mu'minin, which later became the standard title of caliphs.^[38] During his 10 year reign, the Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate. The new caliph continued the war of conquests begun by his predecessor, pushing further into the Sassanian Empire, north into Byzantine territory, and went into Egypt.^[39] These were regions of great wealth controlled by powerful states, but the long conflict between Byzantines and Persians had left both sides militarily exhausted, and the Islamic armies easily prevailed against them. By 640, they had brought all of Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine under the control of the Rashidun Caliphate; Egypt was conquered by 642, and almost the entire Sassanian Empire by 643.^[40]

While the caliphate continued its rapid expansion, Umar laid the foundations of a political structure that could hold it together. He created the Diwan, a bureau for transacting government affairs. The military was brought directly under state control and into its pay. Crucially, in conquered lands, Umar did not require that non-Muslim populations convert to Islam, nor did he try to centralize government. Instead, he allowed subject populations to retain their religion, language, and customs, and he left their government relatively untouched, imposing only a governor (amir) and a financial officer called an amil. These new posts were integral to the efficient network of taxation that financed the empire.

With the bounty secured from conquest, Umar was able to support its faith in material ways: the companions of Muhammad were given pensions on which to live, allowing them to pursue religious studies and exercise spiritual leadership in their communities and beyond. Umar is also remembered for establishing the Islamic calendar; like the Arabian calendar, it is lunar, but the origin is set in 622, the year of the Hijra when Muhammad emigrated to Medina.

While Umar was leading the morning prayers in 644, he was assassinated by the Persian slave Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz.^[41]^[42]^{[page needed]} He appointed Suhayb ibn Sinan to lead the prayers.^[43]

Uthman's reign (644–656)

Uthman ibn Affan (Arabic: عثمان ابن عفان, romanized: ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān) (c. 579 – 17 June 656), who became the third caliph at the age of 70, was one of the early companions, and son in law of Muhammad by marriage to two of Muhammad and Khadija daughters Ruqayyah and Umm Kulthum. Uthman was born into the powerful Umayyad clan of the Meccan Quraysh tribe. Under his leadership, the empire expanded into Fars (present-day Iran), some of Khorasan (present-day Afghanistan), and Armenia.^[44] His rule ended when he was assassinated. Uthman is perhaps best known for forming the committee which was tasked with producing copies of the Quran based on text that had been gathered separately on parchment, bones and rocks during the lifetime of Muhammad. Uthman sent copies of the sacred text to each of the Muslim cities and garrison towns, and destroyed variant texts.^[45]

Election of Uthman

Before Umar died, he appointed a committee of six men to decide on the next caliph and charged them with choosing one of their own numbers. All of the men, like Umar, were from the tribe of Quraysh.

The committee narrowed down the choices to two: Uthman and Ali. Ali was from the Banu Hashim clan (the same clan as Muhammad) of the Quraysh tribe, and he was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and had been one of his companions from the inception of his mission. Uthman was from the Umayyad clan of the Quraysh. He was the second cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and one of the early converts of Islam. Uthman was ultimately chosen.

Uthman reigned for twelve years as a caliph. During the first half of his reign, he was the most popular caliph among all the Rashiduns, while in the latter half of his reign he met increasing opposition, led by the Egyptians and concentrated around Ali, who would albeit briefly, succeed Uthman as caliph.

Despite internal troubles, Uthman continued the wars of conquest started by Umar. The Rashidun army conquered North Africa from the Byzantines and even raided Spain, conquering the coastal areas of the Iberian Peninsula, as well as the islands of Rhodes and Cyprus.^{[citation needed]} Coastal Sicily was raided in 652.^[46] The Rashidun army fully conquered the Sasanian Empire, and its eastern frontiers extended up to the lower Indus River.^[44]

Uthman's most lasting project was the final compilation of the Qur'an. Under his authority diacritics were written with Arabic letters so that non-native speakers of Arabic could easily read the Qur'an.

Assassination of Uthman

After a protest turned into a siege on his house, Uthman refused to initiate any military action, in order to avoid civil war between Muslims and preferred to negotiate a peaceful solution.^{[citation needed]} After the negotiations, the protesters returned but found a man following them, holding an order to execute them, at which point, the protesters returned to Uthman's home, bearing the order. Uthman swore that he did not write the order and to talk the protesters down. The protesters responded by demanding he step down as caliph. Uthman refused and returned to his room, whereupon the protesters broke into Uthman's house from the back and killed him while he was reading the Qur'an.^[41]^[42]^{[page needed]}^[47] It was later discovered that the order to kill the rebels did not, in fact, originate from Uthman, but was, rather, part of a conspiracy to overthrow him.^{[citation needed]}

Ali's reign (656–661)

Ali ibn Abi Talib (Arabic: علي ابن أبي طالب, romanized: ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib) was Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law.^[48] The fourth caliph in Sunni Islam, in Shia Islam, Ali is considered the rightful successor of Muhammad whose appointment was announced at the event of Ghadir Khumm and earlier in his prophetic mission.^[49] Among the good and significant deeds he is credited with in Islamic literature, is being the first male to embrace Islam and the person who offered his support when Muhammad first presented Islam to his relatives;^[50]^[51]^[52]^[53]^[54] facilitating Muhammad's safe escape to Medina by risking his life as the decoy.^[55]^[56]^[57]^[58]^[59] swearing a pact of brotherhood with Muhammad in Medina; taking the hand of Muhammad's daughter, Fatimah, in marriage;^[60]^[61]^[62] acting as Muhammad's secretary in Medina, and serving as his deputy during the expedition of Tabuk.^[63] being (according to many) the most able warrior in Muhammad's army and one of the two Muslim men who represented Islam against a Christian delegation from Najran.^[64]^[65]^[66]^[67] playing a key role in the collection of the Quran, the central text of Islam.^[68]

Crisis and fragmentation

Following Uthman's assassination, Muhammad's cousin Ali was elected caliph by the rebels and townspeople of Medina.^[69] He transferred the capital to Kufa, a garrison city in Iraq.^[70] Soon thereafter, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides, such as Malik al-Ashtar and Salman the Persian.

Demands to take revenge for the assassination of Caliph Uthman rose among parts of the population, and a large army of rebels led by Zubayr, Talha and the widow of Muhammad, Aisha, set out to fight the perpetrators. The army reached Basra and captured it, whereupon 4,000 suspected seditionists were put to death. Subsequently, Ali turned towards Basra and the caliph's army met the rebel army. Though neither Ali nor the leaders of the opposing force, Talha and Zubayr, wanted to fight, a battle broke out at night between the two armies. It is said, according to Sunni Muslim traditions, that those who were involved in the assassination of Uthman initiated combat, as they were afraid that negotiations between Ali and the opposing army would result in their capture and execution. The battle thus fought was the first battle between Muslims and is known as the Battle of the Camel. Ali emerged victoriously and the dispute was settled. The eminent companions of Muhammad, Talha, and Zubayr, were killed in the battle and Ali sent his son Hasan ibn Ali to escort Aisha back to Medina.

Thereafter, there rose another cry for revenge for the blood of Uthman, this time by Mu'awiya, a kinsman of Uthman and governor of the province of Syria. However, it is regarded more as an attempt by Mu'awiya to assume the caliphate, rather than to take revenge for Uthman's murder. Ali fought Mu'awiya's forces to a stalemate at the Battle of Siffin, and then lost a controversial arbitration that ended with the arbiter, 'Amr ibn al-'As, pronouncing his support for Mu'awiya. After this Ali was forced to fight the Battle of Nahrawan against the rebellious Kharijites, a faction of his former supporters who, as a result of their dissatisfaction with the arbitration, opposed both Ali and Mu'awiya. Weakened by this internal rebellion and a lack of popular support in many provinces, Ali's forces lost control over most of the caliphate's territory to Mu'awiya while large sections of the empire—such as Sicily, North Africa, the coastal areas of Spain and some forts in Anatolia—were also lost to outside empires.

In 661, Ali was assassinated by Ibn Muljam as part of a Kharijite plot to assassinate all the different Islamic leaders in an attempt to end the civil war, but the Kharijites failed to assassinate Mu'awiya and 'Amr ibn al-'As.

Ali's son Hasan briefly assumed the caliphate for six months and came to an agreement with Mu'awiya to fix relations between the two groups of Muslims that were each loyal to one of the two men. The treaty stated that Mu'awiya would not name a successor during his reign, and that he would let the Islamic world choose the next leader. This treaty would later be broken by Mu'awiya as he named his son Yazid I successor. Hasan was assassinated,^[71] and Mu'awiya founded the Umayyad Caliphate, supplanting the Rashidun Caliphate.^[41]^[42]^{[page needed]}

Military expansion

The Rashidun Caliphate expanded steadily; within the span of 24 years, a vast territory was conquered comprising Mesopotamia, the Levant, parts of Anatolia, and most of the Sasanian Empire.

Unlike the Sasanian Persians, the Byzantines, after losing Syria, retreated back to Anatolia. As a result, they also lost Egypt to the invading Rashidun army, although the civil wars among the Muslims halted the war of conquest for many years, and this gave time for the Byzantine Empire to recover.

Conquest of the Sasanian Empire

The first Islamic invasion of the Sasanian Empire, launched by Caliph Abu Bakr in 633, was a swift conquest, taking only four months. Abu Bakr sent his general, Khalid ibn al-Walid, to conquer Mesopotamia after the Ridda wars. After entering Iraq with his army of 18,000, Khalid won decisive victories in four consecutive battles: the Battle of Chains, fought in April 633; the Battle of River, fought in the third week of April 633; the Battle of Walaja, fought in May 633 (where he successfully used a pincer movement), and the Battle of Ullais, fought in mid-May of 633. In the last week of May 633, the capital city of Iraq fell to the Muslims after initial resistance in the Battle of Hira.

After resting his armies, Khalid moved in June 633 towards Anbar, which resisted and was defeated, and eventually surrendered after a siege of a few weeks in July 633. Khalid then moved towards the south, and conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr in the last week of July 633. By now, almost the whole of Iraq was under Islamic control. Khalid received a call for help from Dumat al-Jandal in Northern Arabia, where another Muslim general, Iyad ibn Ghanm, was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid diverted there and defeated the rebels in the Battle of Dawmat al-Jandal in the last week of August 633. Returning from Arabia, he received news that a large Persian army was assembling. Within a few weeks, he decided to defeat them piecemeal in order to avoid the risk of defeat by a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and Christian Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni, and Muzieh.

In November 633, Khalid divided his army into three units, and attacked these auxiliaries one by one from three different sides at night, starting with the Battle of Muzieh, then the Battle of Sanni, and finally the Battle of Zumail. These devastating defeats ended Persian control over Iraq. In December 633, Khalid reached the border city of Firaz, where he defeated the combined forces of the Sasanian Persians, Byzantines and Christian Arabs in the Battle of Firaz. This was the last battle in his conquest of Iraq.^[72]

Khalid then left Mesopotamia to lead another campaign in Syria against the Byzantine Empire, after which Mithna ibn Haris took command in Mesopotamia. The Persians once again concentrated armies to regain Mesopotamia, while Mithna ibn Haris withdrew from central Iraq to the region near the Arabian desert to delay war until reinforcement came from Medina. Umar sent reinforcements under the command of Abu Ubayd al-Thaqafi. This army was defeated by the Sasanian army at the Battle of the Bridge in which Abu Ubayd was killed. The response was delayed until after a decisive Muslim victory against the Romans in the Levant at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636. Umar was then able to transfer forces to the east and resume the offensive against the Sasanians. Umar dispatched 36,000 men along with 7500 troops from the Syrian front, under the command of Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās against the Persian army. The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah followed, with the Persians prevailing at first, but, on the third day of fighting, the Muslims gained the upper hand. The legendary Persian general Rostam Farrokhzād was killed during the battle. According to some sources, the Persian losses were 20,000, and the Arabs lost 10,500 men.

Following this Battle, the Arab Muslim armies pushed forward toward the Persian capital of Ctesiphon (also called Madā'in in Arabic), which was quickly evacuated by Yazdgird after a brief siege. After seizing the city, they continued their drive eastwards, following Yazdgird and his remaining troops. Within a short span of time, the Arab armies defeated a major Sasanian counterattack in the Battle of Jalūlā', as well as other engagements at Qasr-e Shirin, and Masabadhan. By the mid-7th century, the Arabs controlled all of Mesopotamia, including the area that is now the Iranian province of Khuzestan. It is said that Caliph Umar did not wish to send his troops through the Zagros Mountains and onto the Iranian plateau. One tradition has it that he wished for a "wall of fire" to keep the Arabs and Persians apart. Later commentators explain this as a common-sense precaution against over-extension of his forces. The Arabs had only recently conquered large territories that still had to be garrisoned and administered. The continued existence of the Persian government was, however, incitement to revolt in the conquered territories and unlike the Byzantine army, the Sasanian army was continuously striving to regain their lost territories. Finally, Umar pressed forward, which eventually resulted in the wholesale conquest of the Sasanian Empire. Yazdegerd, the Sasanian king, made yet another effort to regroup and defeat the invaders. By 641 he had raised a new force, which made a stand at the Battle of Nihawānd, some forty miles south of Hamadan in modern Iran. The Rashidun army, under the command of Umar's appointed general Nu'man ibn Muqarrin al-Muzani, attacked and again defeated the Persian forces. The Muslims proclaimed it the Victory of Victories (Fath alfotuh), as it marked the End of the Sasanians, shattering the last strongest Sasanian army.

Yazdegerd was unable to raise another army and became a hunted fugitive. In 642 Umar sent the army to conquer the remainder of the Persian Empire. The entirety of present-day Iran was conquered, followed by Greater Khorasan (which included the modern Iranian Khorasan province and modern Afghanistan), Transoxania, Balochistan and Makran (part of modern-day Pakistan), Azerbaijan, Dagestan (Russia), Armenia and Georgia; these regions were later re-conquered during Uthman's reign with further expansion into the regions which were not conquered during Umar's reign; hence, the Rashidun Caliphate's frontiers in the east extended to the lower river Indus and north to the Oxus River.

Wars against the Byzantine Empire

Conquest of Byzantine Syria

After Khalid consolidated his control of Iraq, Abu Bakr sent four armies to Syria on the Byzantine front under four different commanders: Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (acting as their supreme commander), Amr ibn al-As, Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan and Shurhabil ibn Hasana. However, their advance was halted by a concentration of the Byzantine army at Ajnadayn. Abu Ubaidah then sent for reinforcements. Abu Bakr ordered Khalid, who by now was planning to attack Ctesiphon, to march from Iraq to Syria with half his army. There were 2 major routes to Syria from Iraq, one passing through Mesopotamia and the other through Daumat ul-Jandal. Khalid took an unconventional route through the Syrian Desert, and after a perilous march of 5 days, appeared in north-western Syria.

The border forts of Sawa, Arak, Tadmur, Sukhnah, al-Qaryatayn and Hawarin were the first to fall to the invading Muslims. Khalid marched on to Bosra via the Damascus road. At Bosra, the Corps of Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil joined Khalid, upon which, per Abu Bakr's orders, Khalid assumed overall command from Abu Ubaidah. Bosra, caught unprepared, surrendered after a brief siege in July 634 (see Battle of Bosra), effectively ending the dynasty of the Ghassanids.

From Bosra, Khalid sent orders to the other corps commanders to join him at Ajnadayn, where, according to early Muslim historians, a Byzantine army of 90,000 (modern sources state 9,000)^[73] was concentrated to push back the Muslims. The Byzantine army was defeated decisively on 30 July 634 in the Battle of Ajnadayn. It was the first major pitched battle between the Muslims and Byzantines and cleared the way for the former to capture central Syria. Damascus, the Byzantine stronghold, was conquered shortly after on 19 September 634. The Byzantine army was given a deadline of 3 days to flee as far as they could, with their families and treasure, or simply agree to stay in Damascus and pay tribute. After the three days had passed, the Muslim cavalry, under Khalid's command, attacked the Roman army by catching up to them using an unknown shortcut at the battle of Maraj-al-Debaj.^{[citation needed]}

On 22 August 634, Abu Bakr died, making Umar his successor. As Umar became caliph, he restored Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah to the overall command of the Muslim armies. The conquest of Syria slowed down under him while he relied heavily on the advice of Khalid, who he kept close at hand.^[74]

The last large garrison of the Byzantine army was at Fahl, which was joined by survivors of Ajnadayn. With this threat at their rear, the Muslim armies could not move further north nor south. Thus Abu Ubaidah decided to deal with the situation, and defeated and routed this garrison at the Battle of Fahl on 23 January 635, which proved to be the "Key to Palestine". After this battle Abu Ubaidah and Khalid marched north towards Emesa; Yazid was stationed in Damascus while Amr and Shurhabil marched south to capture Palestine.^[74] While the Muslims were at Fahl, sensing the weak defense of Damascus, Emperor Heraclius sent an army to re-capture the city. This army, however, could not make it to Damascus and was intercepted by Abu Ubaidah and Khalid on their way to Emesa. The army was destroyed in the battle of Maraj-al-Rome and the second battle of Damascus. Emesa and the strategic town of Chalcis made peace with the Muslims for one year in order to buy time for Heraclius to prepare his defences and raise new armies. The Muslims welcomed the peace and consolidated their control over the conquered territory. However, as soon as the Muslims received the news of reinforcements being sent to Emesa and Chalcis, they marched against Emesa, laid siege to it and eventually captured the city in March 636.^[75]

The prisoners taken in the battle informed them about Emperor Heraclius's plans to take back Syria. They said that an army possibly 200,000 strong would soon emerge to recapture the province. Khalid stopped here on June 636. As soon as Abu Ubaida heard the news of the advancing Byzantine army, he gathered all his officers to plan their next move. Khalid suggested that they should consolidate all of their forces present in the province of Syria (Syria, Jordan, Palestine) and then move towards the plain of Yarmouk for battle.

Abu Ubaida ordered the Muslim commanders to withdraw from all the conquered areas, return the tributes they had previously gathered, and move towards Yarmuk.^[76] Heraclius's army also moved towards Yarmuk, but the Muslim armies reached it in early July 636, a week or two before the Byzantines.^[77] Khalid's mobile guard defeated the Christian Arab auxiliaries of the Roman army in a skirmish.

Nothing further happened until the third week of August, during which the Battle of Yarmouk was fought. The battle lasted 6 days during which Abu Ubaida transferred the command of the entire army to Khalid. Outnumbered five-to-one, the Muslims nevertheless defeated the Byzantine army in October 636. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high command officers, including Khalid, to decide on future conquests, settling on Jerusalem. The siege of Jerusalem lasted four months, after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to Caliph Umar Ibn Al Khattab in person. Amr ibn Al As suggested that Khalid should be sent as Caliph, because of his very strong resemblance to Caliph Umar.

Khalid was recognized and eventually, Caliph Umar ibn Al Khattab came and Jerusalem surrendered in April 637. Abu Ubaida sent Amr bin al-As, Yazid bin Abu Sufyan, and Sharjeel bin Hassana back to their areas to reconquer them; most submitted without a fight. Abu Ubaida himself, along with Khalid, moved to northern Syria to reconquer it with a 17,000-man army. Khalid, along with his cavalry, was sent to Hazir and Abu Ubaidah moved to the city of Qasreen.

Khalid defeated a strong Byzantine army at the Battle of Hazir and reached Qasreen before Abu Ubaidah. The city surrendered to Khalid, and soon after, Abu Ubaidah arrived in June 637. Abu Ubaidah then moved against Aleppo, with Khalid, as usual, commanding the cavalry. After the Battle of Aleppo the city finally agreed to surrender in October 637.

Occupation of Anatolia

Abu Ubaidah and Khalid ibn al-Walid, after conquering all of northern Syria, moved north towards Anatolia taking the fort of Azaz to clear the flank and rear of Byzantine troops. On their way to Antioch, a Roman army blocked them near a river on which there was an iron bridge. Because of this, the following battle is known as the Battle of the Iron Bridge. The Muslim army defeated the Byzantines and Antioch surrendered on 30 October 637 CE. Later during the year, Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid and Iyad ibn Ghanm at the head of two separate armies against the western part of Jazira, most of which was conquered without strong resistance, including parts of Anatolia, Edessa and the area up to the Ararat plain. Other columns were sent to Anatolia as far west as the Taurus Mountains, the important city of Marash, and Malatya, which were all conquered by Khalid in the autumn of 638 CE. During Uthman's reign, the Byzantines recaptured many forts in the region and on Uthman's orders, a series of campaigns were launched to regain control of them. In 647 Muawiyah, the governor of Syria, sent an expedition against Anatolia, invading Cappadocia and sacking Caesarea Mazaca. In 648 the Rashidun army raided Phrygia. A major offensive into Cilicia and Isauria in 650–651 forced the Byzantine Emperor Constans II to enter into negotiations with Muawiyah. The truce that followed allowed a short respite and made it possible for Constans II to hold on to the western portions of Armenia. In 654–655, on the orders of Uthman, an expedition prepared to attack Constantinople, but this plan was not carried out due to the civil war that broke out in 656.

The Taurus Mountains in Turkey marked the western frontiers of the Rashidun Caliphate in Anatolia during Caliph Uthman's reign.

Conquest of Egypt

In 639, Egypt was a prefecture of the Byzantine Empire. However, it had been occupied just a decade before by the Sasanian Empire under Khosrau II (616 to 629 CE). The power of the Byzantine Empire was shattered during the Muslim conquest of Syria, and therefore the conquest of Egypt was much easier. In 639 some 4000 Rashidun troops led by Amr ibn al-As were sent by Umar to conquer the land of the ancient pharaohs. The Rashidun army crossed into Egypt from Palestine in December 639 and advanced rapidly into the Nile Delta. The imperial garrisons retreated into the walled towns, where they successfully held out for a year or more. However, the Muslims sent for reinforcements, and the invading army, joined by another 12,000 men in 640, defeated a Byzantine army at the Battle of Heliopolis. Amr next proceeded in the direction of Alexandria, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on 8 November 641. The Thebaid seems to have surrendered with scarcely any opposition.

The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the Byzantine Empire appears to have been due to the treachery of Cyrus,^[78] prefect of Egypt and Patriarch of Alexandria, and the incompetence of the Byzantine generals, as well as the loss of most of the Byzantine troops in Syria. Cyrus had persecuted the local Coptic Christians. He was one of the authors of monothelism, a 7th century heresy, and some supposed him to have been a secret convert to Islam.

In 645, during Uthman's reign, the Byzantines briefly regained Alexandria, but it was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by Constans II was repulsed. After this, no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country.

The Muslims were assisted by some Copts, who found the Muslims more tolerant than the Byzantines, and of these, some turned to Islam. In return for a tribute of money and food for the occupation troops, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were excused from military service and left free in the observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs. Others sided with the Byzantines, hoping that they would provide a defense against the Arab invaders.^[79] During the reign of Caliph Ali, Egypt was captured by rebel troops under the command of former Rashidun army general Amr ibn al-As, who killed Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, the governor of Egypt appointed by Ali.

Conquest of the Maghreb

After the withdrawal of the Byzantines from Egypt, the Exarchate of Africa declared its independence. Under its exarch, Gregory the Patrician, its dominions extended from the borders of Egypt to Morocco. Abdullah ibn Sa'ad sent raiding parties to the west, resulting in considerable booty and encouraging Sa'ad to propose a campaign to conquer the Exarchate.

Uthman gave him permission after considering it in the Majlis al-Shura. A force of 10,000 soldiers was sent as reinforcement. The Rashidun army assembled in Barqa in Cyrenaica, and from there they marched west, captured Tripoli, and then advanced to Sufetula, Gregory's capital. In the ensuing battle, the Exarchate was defeated and Gregory was killed due to the superior tactics of Abdullah ibn Zubayr. Afterward, the people of North Africa sued for peace, agreeing to pay an annual tribute. Instead of annexing North Africa, the Muslims preferred to make North Africa a vassal state. When the stipulated amount of the tribute was paid, the Muslim forces withdrew to Barqa. Following the First Fitna, the first Islamic civil war, Muslim forces withdrew from north Africa to Egypt. The Umayyad Caliphate would later re-invade North Africa in 664.

Campaign against Nubia (Sudan)

A campaign was undertaken against Nubia during the Caliphate of Umar in 642, but failed after the Makurians won the First Battle of Dongola. The Muslim army pulled out of Nubia with nothing to show for it. Ten years later, Uthman's governor of Egypt, Abdullah ibn Saad, sent another army to Nubia. This army penetrated deeper into Nubia and laid siege to the Nubian capital of Dongola. The Muslims damaged the cathedral in the center of the city, but Makuria also won this battle. As the Muslims were unable to overpower Makuria, they negotiated a mutual non-aggression treaty with their king, Qalidurut. Each side also agreed to afford free passage to each other through their respective territories. Nubia agreed to provide 360 slaves to Egypt every year, while Egypt agreed to supply grain, horses, and textiles to Nubia according to demand.

Conquest of the islands of the Mediterranean Sea

During Umar's reign, the governor of Syria, Muawiyah I, sent a request to build a naval force to invade the islands of the Mediterranean Sea but Umar rejected the proposal because of the risk to the soldiers. Once Uthman became caliph, however, he approved Muawiyah's request. In 650, Muawiyah attacked Cyprus, conquering the capital, Constantia, after a brief siege, but signed a treaty with the local rulers. During this expedition, a relative of Muhammad, Umm-Haram, fell from her mule near the Salt Lake at Larnaca and was killed. She was buried in that same spot, which became a holy site for many local Muslims and Christians and, in 1816, the Hala Sultan Tekke was built there by the Ottomans. After apprehending a breach of the treaty, the Arabs re-invaded the island in 654 CE with five hundred ships. This time, however, a garrison of 12,000 men was left in Cyprus, bringing the island under Muslim influence.^[80] After leaving Cyprus, the Muslim fleet headed towards Crete and then Rhodes and conquered them without much resistance. From 652 to 654, the Muslims launched a naval campaign against Sicily and captured a large part of the island. Soon after this, Uthman was murdered, ending his expansionist policy, and the Muslims accordingly retreated from Sicily. In 655 Byzantine Emperor Constans II led a fleet in person to attack the Muslims at Phoinike (off Lycia) but it was defeated: both sides suffered heavy losses in the battle, and the emperor himself narrowly avoided death.

Treatment of conquered peoples

The non-Muslim monotheists—Jews, Zoroastrians, and Christians—in conquered lands were called dhimmis (the protected people). Those who accepted Islam were treated in a similar manner to other Muslims and were given equivalent rights in legal matters. Non-Muslims were given legal rights according to their faiths' law except where it conflicted with Islamic law.

Dhimmis were allowed to "practice their religion, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy" and were guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, but only in return for paying tax (jizya)^[81] and acknowledging Muslim rule.^[82]

The Rashidun caliphs had placed special emphasis on relatively fair and just treatment of the dhimmis, which were also provided 'protection' by the Caliphate and were not expected to fight. Sometimes, particularly when there were not enough qualified Muslims, dhimmis were given important positions in the government.

Military

The Rashidun Military was the primary arm of the Islamic armed forces of the 7th century, serving alongside the Rashidun navy. The army maintained a very high level of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization, along with the motivation and initiative of the officer corps. For much of its history, this army was one of the most powerful and effective military forces throughout the region. At the height of the Rashidun Caliphate, the maximum size of the army was around 100,000 troops.^[83]

Rashidun army

The Rashidun army was divided into infantry and light cavalry. Reconstructing the military equipment of early Muslim armies is problematic. Compared with Roman armies or later medieval Muslim armies, the range of visual representation is very small, often imprecise. Physically, very little material evidence has survived, and much of it is difficult to date.^[84] The soldiers wore iron and bronze segmented helmets from Iraq, of Central Asian type.^[85]

The standard form of body armor was chainmail. There are also references to the practice of wearing two coats of mail (dir’ayn), the one under the main one being shorter or even made of fabric or leather. Hauberks and large wooden or wickerwork shields were also used as protection in combat.^[84] The soldiers were usually equipped with swords hung in a baldric. They also possessed spears and daggers.^[86]^{[page needed]} Umar was the first Muslim ruler to organize the army as a state department, in 637. A beginning was made with the Quraysh and the Ansar and the system was gradually extended to the whole of Arabia and to Muslims of conquered lands.

The basic strategy of early Muslim armies on the campaign was to exploit every possible weakness of the enemy. Their key strength was mobility. The cavalry had both horses and camels, the latter used as both transport and food for long marches through the desert (e.g., Khalid ibn al-Walid's extraordinary march from the Persian border to Damascus). The cavalry was the army's main strike force and also served as a strategic mobile reserve. The common tactic was to use the infantry and archers to engage and maintain contact with the enemy while the cavalry was held back till the enemy was fully engaged. Once fully engaged, the enemy reserves were held by the infantry and archers, while the cavalry executed a pincer movement (like modern tank and mechanized divisions) to attack the enemy from the sides or to assault their base camps.^{[citation needed]}

The Rashidun army was, in quality and strength, below the standard set by the Sasanian and Byzantine armies. Khalid ibn al-Walid was the first general of the Rashidun Caliphate to successfully conquer foreign lands. During his campaign against the Sasanian Empire (Iraq, 633–634) and the Byzantine Empire (Syria, 634–638), Khalid developed brilliant tactics that he used effectively against both enemy armies.^{[citation needed]}

Abu Bakr's strategy was to give his generals their mission, the geographical area in which that mission would be carried out, and resources for that purpose. He would then leave it to his generals to accomplish their missions in whatever manner they chose. On the other hand, Umar, in the latter part of his Caliphate, adopted a more hands-on approach, directing his generals where to stay and when to move to the next target and who was to command the left and right-wing of the army in each particular battle. This made conquests comparatively slower but made the campaigns well-organized. Uthman and Ali reverted to Abu Bakr's method, giving missions to their generals and leaving the details to them.^{[citation needed]}

Rashidun navy

The early caliphate naval conquest managed to mark long time legacy of Islamic maritime enterprises from the Conquest of Cyprus, the famous Battle of the Masts^[87] up to of their successor states such as the area Transoxiana from area located in between the Jihun River (Oxus/Amu Darya) and Syr Darya, to Sindh (present day Pakistan), by Umayyad,^[88] naval cove of privateer in La Garde-Freinet by Cordoban Emirate,^[89] and the Sack of Rome by the Aghlabids in later era.^[90]^[91]^[92]

Governance

During his reign, Abu Bakr established the Bayt al-Mal (state treasury). Umar expanded the treasury and established a government building to administer the state finances.^[93]

Upon conquest, in almost all cases, the caliphs were burdened with the maintenance and construction of roads and bridges in return for the conquered nation's political loyalty.^[94]

Districts or provinces

Under Abu Bakr, the empire was not clearly divided into provinces, though it had many administrative districts.

Under Umar the Empire was divided into a number of provinces which were as follows:

Arabia was divided into two provinces, Mecca and Medina.
Iraq was divided into two provinces, Basra and Kufa.
Jazira was divided into two provinces, the Tigris and the Euphrates.
Syria was a province.
Palestine was divided in two provinces: Aylya and Ramlah.
Egypt was divided into two provinces: Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt.
Persia was divided into three provinces: Khorasan, Azerbaijan, and Fars.

In his testament Umar had instructed his successor, Uthman, not to make any change in the administrative setup for one year after his death, which Uthman honored; however, after the expiration of the moratorium, he made Egypt one province and created a new province comprising North Africa.^{[citation needed]}

During Uthman's reign the caliphate was divided into 12 provinces. These were:

During Ali's reign, with the exception of Syria (which was under Muawiyah I's control) and Egypt (lost during the latter years of his caliphate to the rebel troops of Amr ibn Al-A'as), the remaining ten provinces were under his control, with no change in administrative organization.

The provinces were further divided into districts. Each of the 100 or more districts of the empire, along with the main cities, were administered by a governor (Wāli). Other officers at the provincial level were:

Katib, the Chief Secretary.
Katib-ud-Diwan, the Military Secretary.
Sahib-ul-Kharaj, the Revenue Collector.
Sahib-ul-Ahdath, the Police Chief.
Sahib-ul-Bait-ul-Mal, the Treasury Officer.
Qadi, the Chief Judge.

In some districts there were separate military officers, though the governor was in most cases the commander-in-chief of the army quartered in the province.

The officers were appointed by the Caliph. Every appointment was made in writing. At the time of appointment, an instrument of instructions was issued to regulate the conduct of the governors. On assuming office, the Governor was required to assemble the people in the main mosque, and read the instrument of instructions before them.^[95]

Umar's general instructions to his officers were:

Remember, I have not appointed you as commanders and tyrants over the people. I have sent you as leaders instead, so that the people may follow your example. Give the Muslims their rights and do not beat them lest they become abused. Do not praise them unduly, lest they fall into the error of conceit. Do not keep your doors shut in their faces, lest the more powerful of them eat up the weaker ones. And do not behave as if you were superior to them, for that is tyranny over them.

During the reign of Abu Bakr the state was economically weak, while during Umar's reign because of an increase in revenues and other sources of income, the state was on its way to economic prosperity. Hence Umar felt it necessary to treat the officers strictly, in order to prevent corruption. During his reign, at the time of appointment, every officer was required to swear an oath:

That he would not ride a Turkic horse (which was a symbol of pride).
That he would not wear fine clothes.
That he would not eat sifted flour.
That he would not keep a porter at his door.
That he would always keep his door open to the public.

Caliph Umar himself followed the above postulates strictly. During the reign of Uthman the state became more economically prosperous than ever before; the allowance of the citizens was increased by 25%, and the economic condition of the ordinary person was more stable, which led Caliph Uthman to revoke the second and third postulates of the oath.

At the time of an officer's appointment, a complete inventory of all his possessions was prepared and kept on record. If there was later an unusual increase in his possessions, he was immediately called to account, and the unlawful property confiscated by the State. The principal officers were required to come to Mecca on the occasion of the Hajj, during which people were free to present any complaint against them. In order to minimize the chances of corruption, Umar made it a point to pay high salaries to the staff. Provincial governors received as much as five to seven thousand dirhams annually besides their share of the spoils of war (if they were also the commander-in-chief of the army of their sector).

Judicial administration

The judicial administration, like the rest of the administrative structure of the Rashidun Caliphate, was set up by Umar, and it remained basically unchanged throughout the duration of the Caliphate. In order to provide adequate and speedy justice for the people, justice was administered according to the principles of Islam.

Accordingly, Qadis (judges) were appointed at all administrative levels. The Qadis were chosen for their integrity and learning in Islamic law. Wealthy men and men of high social status, compensated highly by the Caliphate, were appointed in order to make them resistant to bribery or undue influence based on social position. The Qadis also were not allowed to engage in trade. Judges were appointed in sufficient numbers to staff every district with at least one.

Electing or appointing a caliph

The four Rashidun caliphs were chosen by a small electoral body consisting of prominent members of the Quraysh called shūrā (Arabic: شُـوْرَى, lit. 'consultation').^[96]

Fred Donner, in his book The Early Islamic Conquests (1981), argues that the standard Arabian practice during the early Caliphates was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and elect a leader from amongst themselves, although there was no specified procedure for this shura, or consultative assembly. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir, as there was no basis in the majority Sunni view that the head of state or governor should be chosen based on lineage alone.

Abu Bakr Al-Baqillani has said that the leader of the Muslims should simply be from the majority. Abu Hanifa an-Nu‘man also wrote that the leader must come from the majority.^[97]

Sunni belief

Following the death of Muhammad, a meeting took place at Saqifah. At that meeting, Abu Bakr was elected caliph by the Muslim community. Sunni Muslims developed the belief that the caliph is a temporal political ruler, appointed to rule within the bounds of Islamic law (viz., the rules of life set by Allah in the Qur'an). The job of adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law was left to Islamic lawyers, judiciary, or specialists individually termed as Mujtahids and collectively named the Ulema. The first four caliphs are called the Rashidun, meaning the Rightly Guided Caliphs, because they are believed to have followed the Qur'an and the sunnah (example) of Muhammad in all things.

Accountability of rulers

Sunni Islamic lawyers have commented on when it is permissible to disobey, impeach or remove rulers in the Caliphate. This is usually when the rulers are not meeting public responsibilities obliged upon them under Islam.

Al-Mawardi said that if the rulers meet their Islamic responsibilities to the public, the people must obey their laws, but if they become either unjust or severely ineffective then the Caliph or ruler must be impeached via the Majlis al-Shura. Al-Juwayni argued that Islam is the goal of the ummah, so any ruler that deviates from this goal must be impeached. Al-Ghazali believed that oppression by a caliph is enough for impeachment. Rather than just relying on impeachment, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani obliged rebellion upon the people if the caliph began to act with no regard for Islamic law. Al-Asqalani said that to ignore such a situation is haraam, and those who cannot revolt inside the caliphate should launch a struggle from outside. He used two ayahs from the Qur'an to justify this:

And they (the sinners on qiyama) will say, "Our Lord! We obeyed our leaders and our chiefs, and they misled us from the right path. Our Lord! Give them (the leaders) double the punishment you give us and curse them with a very great curse"...^[33:67–68]

Islamic lawyers have commented that when the rulers refuse to step down via successful impeachment through the Majlis, becoming dictators through the support of a corrupt army, the majority, upon agreement, has the option to launch a revolution against them. Many noted that this option is only exercised after factoring in the potential cost of life.^[97]

Economy

According to a pious work on early Islam by Abdus Salam Nadvi, among their other virtues, the Rashidun were known for their leniency in levying taxation.^[98]

Bait-ul-Maal

Bait-ul-Maal (lit., the house of money) aka treasury aka state exchequer, was established by Abu Bakr. Umar built the building housing it.^[93] A "major portion" of the funds collected for the Bait-ul-Maal (at least under caliph Umar) went to stipends or allowances that Muslims gave themselves^[99] as conquerors of the land.

After consulting the Companions, Umar decided to establish the central Treasury at Medina. Abdullah bin Arqam was appointed as the Treasury Officer. He was assisted by Abdur Rahman bin Awf and Muiqib. A separate Accounts Department was also set up to maintain spending records. Later treasuries were set up in the provinces. After meeting the local expenditure the provincial treasuries were required to remit the surplus revenue to the central treasury at Medina. According to Yaqubi the salaries and stipends charged to the central treasury amounted to over 30 million dirhams.

A separate building was constructed for the royal treasury, the bait ul maal, which, in large cities, was protected by as many as 400 guards.

Most historical accounts state that, among the Rashidun caliphs, Uthman was the first to strike coins; some accounts, however, state that Umar was the first to do so. When Persia was conquered, three types of coins were current there: the Baghli, of eight dang; Tabari of four dang; and Maghribi of three dang. Umar (or Uthman, according to some accounts) first struck an Islamic dirham of six dang.

Social welfare and pensions were introduced in early Islamic law as forms of zakāt (charity), one of the Five Pillars of Islam, since the time of Umar. The taxes (including zakāt and jizya) collected in the treasury of an Islamic government were used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. According to the Islamic jurist Al-Ghazali (Algazel, 1058–1111), the government was also expected to stockpile food supplies in every region in case a disaster or famine occurred. The Caliphate was thus one of the earliest welfare states.^[101]^[102]

Taxation

A "regular system of revenue" for Iraq was set up during Umar's caliphate. According to a pious work by Abdus Salam Nadvi, despite calls for the land of the conquered people to be distributed as spoils among the conquering Arabs, Umar instead set up a system of taxation of the current owners.^[103] Among other benevolences reported in Muslim literature, the Rashidun were said to be lenient in their tax collection. He appointed capable Companions of the Prophet to organize an assessment of arable/taxable land, confiscating only land from pagan temples, "absconders and the rebellious", and some others, and set taxes according to crops raised on the land,^[104] giving the taxpayer the choice of several tax collectors to collect their taxes. In doing all this he sought advise from "venerable persons" for improvement of his work, including non-Muslims Zimmi subject.^[105] Outside of Iraq he forbade extra confiscation of crops above the rate of tribute taxation and forbade Muslims (who received stipends) from taking possession of the conquered people's land, threatening or punishing those who did.^[106] He also confiscated land from those who did not cultivate it.^[107]

Caliph Ali reportedly advised a newly appointed tax collector:

“Do not beat with while receiving revenue from any person. Do not take their livelihood, summer and winter garments and beasts of burden. Neither cause anyone stand.”^[108]
The economic resources of the State were:

Zakāt

Ushr

Jizya

Fay

Khums

Kharaj

Zakat

Main article: Zakat

Zakāt tax on Muslims to give to the poor (usually amounting to 2.5% of dormant wealth over a certain amount). The Rashidun reportedly complied with the practice of Muhammad of not taking the best goods of the taxpayers by way of Zakat.^[109]

Jizya

Main article: Jizya

Jizya was a per capita tax imposed on able bodied (disabled were exempt) non-Muslim men (known as Zimmis). Nadvi states that collectors were forbidden from torturing the Zimmis while collecting Jizyah.^[108]

Fay

Fay was the income from State land, whether an agricultural land or a meadow or land with any natural mineral reserves.

Khums

Main article: Khums

Ghanimah or Khums represented war booty, four-fifths of which was distributed among serving soldiers, while one-fifth was allotted to the state.

Kharaj

Main article: Kharaj

Kharaj was a tax on agricultural land.
Initially, after the first Muslim conquests in the 7th century, kharaj usually denoted a lump-sum duty levied upon the conquered provinces and collected by the officials of the former Byzantine and Sasanian empires, or, more broadly, any kind of tax levied by Muslim conquerors on their non-Muslim subjects, dhimmis. At that time, kharaj was synonymous with jizyah, which later emerged as a poll tax paid by dhimmis. Muslim landowners, on the other hand, paid only ushr, a religious tithe, which carried a much lower rate of taxation.^[110]

Ushr

Ushr was a reciprocal 10% levy on agricultural land as well as merchandise imported from states that taxed the Muslims on their products. Umar was the first Muslim ruler to levy ushr. Umar issued instructions that ushr should be levied in such a way so as to avoid hardship, so as not to affect trade within the Caliphate. The tax was levied only on merchandise meant for sale; goods imported for consumption or personal use but not for sale were not taxed. Merchandise valued at 200 dirhams or less was not taxed. Imports by citizens for trade purposes were subject to the customs duty or import tax at lower rates. In the case of the dhimmis, the rate was 5% and, in the case of the Muslims, 2.5%, the same as that of zakāt. The levy was thus regarded as a part of zakāt rather than a separate tax.

Allowance

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
Find sources: "Rashidun Caliphate" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Beginning of the allowance

After the Battle of the Yarmuk and Battle of al-Qadisiyyah the Muslims won heavy spoils, filling the coffers at Medina. The problem before Umar was what to do with this money. Someone suggested that the money should be kept in the treasury as a reserve for public expenditures. However, this view was not acceptable to the general body of Muslims. Accordingly, a consensus was reached to distribute whatever was received during a year to the citizens.
The next question was what system should be adopted for distribution. One suggestion was to distribute it equally on an ad hoc basis. Others objected that, as the spoils were considerable, the proposal would make the people very rich. It was therefore agreed that, instead of ad hoc division, the amount of the allowance to the stipend should be determined beforehand and this allowance should be paid regardless of the amount of the spoils.
On the amount of the allowance there were two opinions. Some held that it should be the same for all Muslims. Umar, on the other hand, believed that the allowance should be graduated according to one's merit with reference to Islam.
Then the question arose as to what basis should be used for placing some above others. Some suggested that the Caliph should first get the highest allowance, with the remaining allowances graduating downward from that. Umar rejected the proposal and decided to start with the clan of Muhammad.
Umar set up a committee to compile a list of persons by nearness to Muhammad. The committee produced the list clan-wise. Bani Hashim appeared as the first clan, then the clan of Abu Bakr, and then the clan of Umar. Umar accepted the first two placements but relegated his clan lower on the relationship scale.
The main provisions of the final scale of allowance approved by Umar were:^{[citation needed]}

The widows of Muhammad received 12,000 dirhams each;

`Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib, the uncle of Muhammad, received an annual allowance of 7,000 dirhams;

The grandsons of Muhammad, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali received 5,000 dirhams each;

Those who had become Muslims by the time of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah got 4,000 dirhams each;

The veterans of the Apostasy wars received 3,000 dirhams each;

Under this scale, Umar's son Abdullah ibn Umar received an allowance of 3,000 dirhams, while Usama ibn Zaid got 4,000. The ordinary Muslim citizens were given allowances of between 2,000 and 2,500. The regular annual allowance was given only to the urban population because they formed the backbone of the state's economic resources. The Bedouin living in the desert, cut off from the state's affairs, and making no contributions to development, were nevertheless often given stipends. On assuming office, Uthman increased these stipends by 25%.^{[citation needed]}

Examples of stipends for Muslims during Rashidun^[111]
Classes of Muslim beneficiaries	Durhams per annum received
Participants of Battle of Badr	5000
Muhajireen of Habsh and participants of Battle of Uhud	4000
Muhajireen before Conquest of Mecca	3000
Those who embraced Islam after the Conquest of Mecca	2000
Participants of the Battles of Qadisiyyah and Yarmuk	2000
Inhabitants of Yemen	4000
Soldiers after the Battles of Qadisiyyah and Yarmuk	3000
Without any distinction of status	2000

Public works

Some information about life under the Rashidun comes from The Ways of the Sahbah by Maulana Abdus Salam Nadvi, a pious work that according to a vender's blurb "depicts the life sketches and heroic deeds of the companions" and provides both an Historical document and "a source of inspiration for Muslims". Since the era of the companions coincides with that of the Rashidun (in addition to some decades after), the book is a source for not only (traditional claims of) the many virtues of the companions (humility, forbearance, justice, piety, fortitude, etc.) but also taxation and revenue, social welfare, public works, city populations, rights of slaves, etc. under the Rashidun.^[112]

Civil welfare in Islam started in the form of the construction and purchase of wells. During the caliphate, the Muslims repaired many of the aging wells in the lands they conquered.^[113]

In addition to wells, the Muslims built many tanks and canals. Many canals were purchased, and new ones constructed. While some canals were excluded for the use of monks (such as a spring purchased by Talhah), and the needy, most canals were open to general public use. Some canals were constructed between settlements, such as the Saad canal that provided water to Anbar, and the Abi Musa Canal to provide water to Basra.^[114]

During a famine, Umar ibn al-Khattab ordered the construction of a canal in Egypt connecting the Nile with the sea. The purpose of the canal was to facilitate the transport of grain to Arabia through a sea-route, hitherto transported only by land. The canal was constructed within a year by 'Amr ibn al-'As, and Abdus Salam Nadiv writes that "Arabia was rid of famine for all the times to come."^[115]

After four floods hit Mecca after Muhammad's death, Umar ordered the construction of two dams to protect the Kaaba. He also constructed a dam near Medina to protect its fountains from flooding.^[94]

Settlements

The area of Basra was very sparsely populated when it was conquered by the Muslims. During the reign of Umar, the Muslim army found it a suitable place to construct a base. Later the area was settled and a mosque was erected.^[116]^[117]^[118]

Upon the conquest of Madyan, it was settled by Muslims. However, soon the environment was considered harsh, and Umar ordered the resettlement of the 40,000 settlers to Kufa. The new buildings were constructed from mud bricks instead of reeds, a material that was popular in the region, but caught fire easily.

During the conquest of Egypt the area of Fustat was used by the Muslim army as a base. Upon the conquest of Alexandria, the Muslims returned and settled in the same area. Initially the land was primarily used for pasture, but later buildings were constructed.^[119]

Other already populated areas were greatly expanded. At Mosul, Arfaja al-Bariqi, at the command of Umar, constructed a fort, a few churches, a mosque and a locality for the Jewish population.^[120]

Miracles

According to a work by al-Suyuti (in his History of the Caliphs (Tarikh al-Khulafa), Umar performed several miracles according to different hadith. One series of hadith describe how Umar interrupted a khutbah (Friday prayer sermon) to call out "‘Sariyah, the mountain!’, to the confusion of his listeners who saw no Sariyah. It later turned out that Sariyah was a commander of an army Umar had sent to fight, and which at that moment was losing its battle. Though a long distance away, Sariya heard Umar's cry and realized he must position his army with its rear to a close by mountain, whereupon Sariya was victorious over the enemy. In another series of hadith Umar told a stranger he met to ‘Go to your family for they have been burnt’, which the man did and found they had been victims of a fire; and on another occasion Umar was able to detect whenever a lie is being told to him.

Amr ibn al-As, a military commander and governor who served under the Rashidun, learned of an Egyptian tradition where a virgin was sacrificed by being drown in the Nile river at the beginning of the year, 'without which [the Nile] does not flow’. Al-As forbade this as unIslamic, after which the river stopped flowing. He gave the Egyptians a slip of paper to throw in the river where a request was written for Allah to make the river flow. The day after the paper was thrown, the river rose sixteen cubits.{sfn|as-Suyuti|1995|pp=127-131}}

Religious significance and legacy

The first four caliphs are particularly significant to modern intra-Islamic debates: for Sunni Muslims, they are models of righteous rule; for Shia Muslims (at least Twelver Shia), the first three of the four were usurpers. Accepted traditions of both Sunni and Shia Muslims detail disagreements and tensions between the four rightly guided caliphs.^{[citation needed]}

Sunni view

In Sunni Islam, the application of the label 'rightly-guided' to the first caliphs signifies their status as models whose actions and opinions (Arabic: sunna) should be followed and emulated from a religious point of view.^[121] In this sense, they are both 'rightly-guided' and 'rightly-guiding':^[122] the religious narratives about their lives serve as a guide to right belief.^[121]

They were all close companions of Muhammad, and his relatives: the daughters of Abu Bakr and Umar, Aisha and Hafsa respectively, were married to Muhammad, and two of Muhammad's daughters Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum were married to Uthman and another daughter Fatimah to Ali. Likewise, their succession was not hereditary, something that would become the custom after them, beginning with the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate. Council decision or caliph's choice determined the successor originally.^{[citation needed]}

The Sunni have long viewed the period of the Rashidun as an exemplary system of governance—based upon Islamic righteousness and merit—which they seek to emulate. The Sunni also equate this system with the worldly success that was promised by Allah, in the Quran and hadith, to those Muslims who pursued His pleasure; this spectacular success has further added to the emulatory appeal of the Rashidun era.^[123]^[124]^[125]

At the same time, it has been noted that the domination of Arabs over non-Arabs on an ethnic basis during Umar's reign and the widespread nepotism of Uthman's caliphate are in essential conflict with the call of Islam.^[126]^[127]

Twelver Shia view

The (Twelver) Shia view is that, similar to the past prophets in the Quran,^[128] the succession to Muhammad was settled by divine appointment, (not consensus),^[129]^[130] and chosen from Muhammad's family.^[128]^[129]^[130] Specifically, the successor was Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, Ali, who Muhammad announced as his rightful successor (according to Shia doctrine) shortly before his death at the event of Ghadir Khumm and on other occasions, e.g., at the event of Dhul Asheera.^[49] In the Shia view, while direct revelation ended with Muhammad's death, Ali remained the righteous guide or Imam towards God, similar to the successors of the past prophets in the Quran.^[130] After Muhammad's death, Ali inherited Muhammad's divine knowledge and his authority to correctly interpret the Quran, especially its allegorical and metaphorical verses (mutashabihat).^[131]^[132]

In the Shia view, since the time of the first prophet, Adam, the earth has never remained without an Imam, in the form of prophets and their divinely-appointed successors. Likewise, Imamate was passed on from Ali to the next Imam, Hasan, by divinely-inspired designation (nass).^[133] After Hasan's death, Husayn and nine of his descendants are the Shia Imams, the last of whom, Mahdi, went into occultation in 260 AH, due to the hostility of Mahdi's enemies and the danger to his life.^[134] His advent is awaited by the Shia and Sunni alike, although the Sunni hold different views about Mahdi.^[135] In his absence, the vacuum in the Shia leadership is partly filled by marjaiyya and, more recently, by wilayat al-faqqih, i.e., guardianship of the Islamic jurist.^[136]

Views of other Shia

While the Ismaili Shi'ites accept a closely-related understanding of Imamate as the Twelver Shia, the Ismailis under the leadership of the Aga Khans do recognize the caliphates of the first three caliphs before Ali ibn Abi Talib while distinguishing Imamate as a separate office apart from the Caliphate:

"In the present Imamat the final reconciliation between the Shia and Sunni doctrines has been publicly proclaimed by myself on exactly the same lines as Hazrat Aly did at the death of the Prophet and during the first thirty years after that. The political and worldly Khalifat was accepted by Hazrat Aly in favour of the three first Khalifs voluntarily and with goodwill for the protection of the interests of the Muslims throughout the world. We Ismailis now in the same spirit accept the Khalifat of the first Khalifs and such other Khalifs as during the last thirteen centuries helped the cause of Islam, politically, socially and from a worldly point of view. On the other hand, the Spiritual Imamat remained with Hazrat Aly and remains with his direct descendants always alive till the day of Judgement."
— Aga Khan III: Selected Speeches and Writings of Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, pg. 1417^[137]

The Nizari Ismailis on the other hand, have come to accept the caliphates of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman in the modern times under the leadership and teachings of the Aga Khans,^[137] even though polemics against those early caliphs were prevalent during the Fatimid period. For instance, the Fatimid Ismaili Imam-Caliph Al-Hakim bi Amr Allah ordered the public cursing of the first three caliphs in the year 1005 in Cairo.^[138]

The Zaydi Shia Muslims believe the first three caliphs to be legitimate leaders.^[139]

Questions of virtue and guidance

Some secular scholars have questioned the traditional Sunni view of the Rashidun. Robert G. Hoyland has questioned the alleged moral superiority of the Rashidun (or at least of Uthman and Ali) to their Umayyad successors, noting Ali was involved in the first civil war (First Fitna) and Uthman had "already inaugurated a nepotistic style of government",^[140] for which later Caliphs were condemned.

Similarly, Shia view the companions, including the Rashidun Caliphs, as less than models of piety, instead accusing many of them of conspiring after the Prophet's death to dispossess Ali ibn Abi Talib and his descendants of the divinely ordained right to leadership. In this Shi'ite perspective, many of the companions and their successors were usurpers, even hypocrites, who never ceased to subvert the religion for their own interests.^[141]

Hoyland explains the idea of a divinely guided "golden age" of early Islam as coming not from the historical virtue of the Rashidun and other Companions of the Prophet (aṣ-ṣaḥāba), but from the desire of late Umayyad and Abbasid religious scholars (Ulama) to have Caliphs of their era defer to them (the ulama) in religious matters. By differentiating the first caliphs (who had more power in law making) from contemporary Caliphs, they could argue for taking away the religious power of post-Rashidun Caliphs. Consequently, the companions were "given a makeover" as "model's of piety and beyond reproach".^[142]

Skeptical assessments

Hoyland questions not only the virtue of the Rashidun, but also how much is known about them. He argues that "writers who lived at the same time as the first four caliphs ... recorded next to nothing about them, and their names do not appear on coins, inscriptions, or documents. Coins struck during the Rashidun rule are inscribed "In the name of God," but do not include the name of Muhammad.^[143] It is only with the fifth caliph", Muawiyah I (661–680), "that was have evidence of a functioning Arab government, since his name appears on all official state media."^[144]

Historicity and inscriptions

However, at least one inscription has been found dating to the period that mentions Umar by name and the date of his death, known as the inscription of Zuhayr.^[145] Its three lines read:

In the name of God
I, Zuhayr, wrote (this) at the time ‘Umar died, year four
And twenty^[146]

In reply Hoyland, finds it "all but certain" that the inscription refers to the historical Umar, adding, "and yet the absence of any epithet or title is striking".^[146] (Other possible mentions of Rashidun caliphs -- specifically of Uthman -- in inscription from that era include: an inscription at Taymāʾ, Saudi Arabia,^[147] and one at the Alia Palace archaeological site, in Makkah Province, Saudi Arabia.^[148]

List of Rashidun caliphs

Period	Caliph	Relationship with Muhammad	Parents	House	Notable events
8 June 632 – 22 August 634	Abu Bakr (أبو بكر) Al-Siddiq	Father of Aisha, Muhammad's wife.	Abu Quhafa Umm Khayr	Banu Taym	On 23 August 634, Abu Bakr fell sick and he developed a high fever.
23 August 634 – 3 November 644	Umar (عمر) Al-Faruq	Father of Hafsa, Muhammad's wife.	Al-Khattab ibn Nufayl Hantama bint Hisham	Banu Adi	Assassinated by a Persian slave^[41]^[149]
11 November 644 – 20 June 656	Uthman (عثمان) Al-Ghani	Husband of Ruqayya and later Umm Kulthum, Muhammad's daughters. Grandson of Umm Hakim bint Abd al-Muttalib, Muhammad's paternal aunt	Affan ibn Abi al-As Arwa bint Kurayz	Banu Umayya	Assassinated at the end of a siege upon his house^[41]^[150]
20 June 656 – 29 January 661	Ali (علي) Al-Haydar	Muhammad's first cousin. Husband of Fatimah, Muhammad's daughter. Husband of Umama bint Abi al-As, Muhammad's granddaughter.	Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib Fatimah bint Asad	Banu Hashim	Assassinated during Fajr prayer in the Great Mosque of Kufah^[41]^[151] After his death he was succeeded by Al-Hasan in 661. Al-Hasan ruled for five to six months and then abdicated for Mu'awiya

References

^ Versteegh, Kees (2014). The Arabic Language. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 126–132. ISBN 978-0-7486-4529-9.
^ Taagepera, Rein (September 1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia". International Studies Quarterly. 41 (3): 495. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053. JSTOR 2600793.
^ Melchert (2020, p. 63, cf. p. 72, note 1)
^ Zeidan, Adam. "Rashidun". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 19 November 2024.
^ Triana, María (2017). Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective. Taylor & Francis. p. 159. ISBN 9781317423683.
^ Bosworth, C. E.; Marín, Manuela; Ayalon, A. (1960–2007). "Shūrā". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1063.
^ Melchert 2020, pp. 63, 72, note 1.
^ Sowerwine 2010, p. 5.
^ McHugo 2017, p. 93.
^ Azyumardi Azra (2006). Indonesia, Islam, and Democracy: Dynamics in a Global Context. Equinox Publishing (London). p. 9. ISBN 9789799988812.
^ C. T. R. Hewer; Allan Anderson (2006). Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps (illustrated ed.). Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd. p. 37. ISBN 9780334040323.
^ Anheier, Helmut K.; Juergensmeyer, Mark, eds. (2012). Encyclopedia of Global Studies. Sage Publications. p. 151. ISBN 9781412994224.
^ Claire Alkouatli (2007). Islam (illustrated, annotated ed.). Marshall Cavendish. p. 44. ISBN 9780761421207.
^ Catharina Raudvere, Islam: An Introduction (I.B.Tauris, 2015), 51–54.
^ Asma Afsaruddin (2008). The first Muslims: history and memory. Oneworld. p. 55.
^ Safia Amir (2000). Muslim Nationhood in India: Perceptions of Seven Eminent Thinkers. Kanishka Publishers, Distributors. p. 173. ISBN 9788173913358.
^ Heather N. Keaney (2013). Medieval Islamic Historiography: Remembering Rebellion. Sira: Companion- versus Caliph-Oriented History: Routledge. ISBN 9781134081066. He also foretold that there would be a caliphate for thirty years (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) that would be followed by kingship.
^ Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb; Johannes Hendrik Kramers; Bernard Lewis; Charles Pellat; Joseph Schacht (1970). "The Encyclopaedia of Islam". The Encyclopaedia of Islam. 3 (Parts 57–58). Brill: 1164.
^
There are a number of hadith about the caliphate lasting for 30 years followed by monarchy.
- Abu Dawud. "Sunan Abi Dawud » Model Behavior of the Prophet (Kitab Al-Sunnah) » Hadith 4646. 42 Model Behavior of the Prophet (Kitab Al-Sunnah) (1685)Chapter: The Caliphs(9)باب فِي الْخُلَفَاءِ". sunnah.com. Retrieved 3 December 2024. The Caliphate of Prophecy will last thirty years; then Allah will give the Kingdom of His Kingdom to anyone He wills. Sa'id told that Safinah said to him: Calculate Abu Bakr's caliphate as two years, 'Umar's as ten, 'Uthman's as twelve and 'Ali so and so. Sa'id said: I said to Safinah: They conceive that 'Ali was not a caliph. He replied: The buttocks of Marwan told a lie.
- Abu Dawud. "Sunan Abi Dawud » Model Behavior of the Prophet (Kitab Al-Sunnah) - كتاب السنة » Hadith 4647". sunnah.com. Retrieved 3 December 2024. The caliphate of Prophecy will last thirty years; then Allah will give the Kingdom to whom he wishes; or his kingdom to whom he wishes.
- al-Tirmidhi. "Jami' at-Tirmidhi » Chapters On Al-Fitan - كتاب الفتن عن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم » Hadith 2226". sunnah.com. Retrieved 3 December 2024. 'The Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said: "Al-Khilafah will be in my Ummah for thirty years, then there will be monarchy after that."' Then Safinah said to me: 'Count the Khilafah of Abu Bakr,' then he said: 'Count the Khilafah of 'Umar and the Khilafah of 'Uthman.' Then he said to me: 'Count the Khilafah of 'Ali."' He said: "So we found that they add up to thirty years."
^ Aqidah.Com (1 December 2009). "The Khilaafah Lasted for 30 Years Then There Was Kingship Which Allaah Gives To Whomever He Pleases". Aqidah.Com. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
^ Madelung 1997, p. 31.
^ Madelung (1997, p. 32)
^ Coeli Fitzpatrick, Adam Hani Walker Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2014), p. 3 [1]
^ Valerie J. Hoffman, The Essentials of Ibadi Islam (2012), p. 6
^ Madelung (1997, pp. 32–33)
^ Fitzpatrick & Walker (2014, p. 186)
^ Fitzpatrick & Walker (2014, p. 4)
^ Balazuri: p. 113.
^ Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 467.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Gianluca Paolo Parolin, Citizenship in the Arab World: Kin, Religion and Nation-state (Amsterdam University Press, 2009), 52.
^ Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 518
^ ^a ^b The Arab Conquest of Iran and its Aftermath, 'Abd Al-Husein Zarrinkub, The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4, ed. William Bayne Fisher, Richard Nelson Frye (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 5–6.
^ Battle of Yarmouk River, Spencer Tucker, Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict (ABC-CLIO, 2010), 92.
^ Khalid ibn Walid, Timothy May, Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, ed. Stanley Sandler (ABC-CLIO, 2002), 458.
^ Juan Eduardo Campo, Encyclopedia of Islam Archived 2023-03-12 at the Wayback Machine, Infobase Publishing, 2009
^ Ibn Kathir, "al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah", part 7.
^ Ahmed, Nazeer, Islam in Global History: From the Death of Prophet Muhammad to the First World War, American Institute of Islamic History and Cul, 2001, p. 34. ISBN 0-7388-5963-X.
^ Madelung 1997, p. 49.
^ Hourani, p. 23.
^ "The Caliphate". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Archived from the original on 9 July 2014. Retrieved 16 April 2014.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f شبارو, عصام محمد (1995). First Islamic Arab State (1–41 AH/ 623–661 CE). 3. Arab Renaissance House – Beirut, Lebanon. p. 370.
^ ^a ^b ^c Madelung 1997.
^ El-Hibri, Tayeb (19 October 2010). Parable and Politics in Early Islamic History: The Rashidun Caliphs. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-52165-9.
^ ^a ^b Ochsenweld, William; Fisher, Sydney Nettleton (2004). The Middle East: a history (sixth ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-244233-6.
^ Shafi', Maulana Mufti Muhammad. "Ma'ariful-Qur'an" (PDF). Retrieved 1 July 2022.
^ Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, p. 1892, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6
^ Hinds 1972, p. 457.
^ Momen (1985, pp. 12–16)
^ ^a ^b Momen (1985, pp. 12, 15)
^ Gleave, Robert (2021). "ʿAlī B. Abī Ṭālib". In Fleet, Kate (ed.). Encyclopedia of Islam (Third ed.). Brill Reference Online.
^ Betty, Kelen (1975). Muhammad: the messenger of God. Nashville: T. Nelson. pp. 48, 49. ISBN 9780929093123.
^ Abbas (2021, p. 34)
^ Hazleton (2013, pp. 95–97)
^ Irving, Washington (1868), Mahomet and his successors, vol. 8, New York: G. P. Putnam and Son, p. 71, archived from the original on 7 February 2024, retrieved 6 October 2021
^ Abbas (2021, pp. 45, 46)
^ Hazleton (2013, pp. 159–161)
^ Peters, Francis (1994). Muhammad and the origins of Islam. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 185–187. ISBN 9780791418758.
^ Kelen, Betty (1975). Muhammad: the messenger of God. Nashville: T. Nelson. pp. 85–87. ISBN 9780929093123.
^ Watt, W. Montgomery (1953). Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 149–151.
^ Abbas (2021, pp. 5, 48)
^ Miskinzoda, Gurdofarid (2015). "The significance of the ḥadīth of the position of Aaron for the formulation of the Shīʿī doctrine of authority". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 78 (1): 82. doi:10.1017/S0041977X14001402. S2CID 159678004.
^ Momen (1985, pp. 12, 13)
^ Miskinzoda (2015, p. 69)
^ Momen (1985, p. 13)
^ Abbas (2021, pp. 54, 112, 191)
^ Rogerson, Barnaby (2006). The heirs of the prophet Muhammad: And the roots of the Sunni-Shia schism. London: Abacus. pp. 40, 62. ISBN 9780349117577.
^ Madelung (1997, pp. 15, 16)
^ Abbas (2021, p. 87)
^ Donner 2010, pp. 157–159.
^ Netton 2013, p. 358.
^ Madelung, Wilferd (2003). "Ḥasan B. ʿAli B. Abi Ṭāleb". Encyclopædia Iranica. Encyclopedia Iranica Foundation. Archived from the original on 17 November 2013.
^
A. I. Alkram. "Chapter 19: The Battle of Chains – Chapter 26: The Last Opposition". Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns. The Sword of Allah. p. 1.
- "Chapter 19: The Battle of Chains". p. 1. Archived from the original on 26 January 2002.
- "Chapter 20: The Battle of the River". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.
- "Chapter 21: The Hell of Walaja". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.
- "Chapter 22: The River of Blood". p. 1. Archived from the original on 22 August 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.
- "Chapter 23: The Conquest of Hira". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.
- "Chapter 24: Anbar and Ain-ut-Tamr". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.
- "Chapter 25: Daumat-ul-Jandal Again". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.
- "Chapter 26: The Last Opposition". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.
^ D. Nicolle, Yarmuk 636 AD – The Muslim Conquest of Syria, p. 43: gives 9,000–10,000
^ ^a ^b A.I. Akram. "Chapter 31: The Unkind Cut". The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns. p. 1. Archived from the original on 5 January 2003. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
^ "Chapter 32: The Battle of Fahl". Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns. The Sword of Allah. p. 1. Archived from the original on 10 January 2003. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
^ "The Eve of Yarmuk". Khalid bin Al-Waleed. Archived from the original on 2 April 2007.
^ "The Conquest of Emessa". Khalid bin Al-Waleed. Archived from the original on 6 March 2007.
^ "Catholic Encyclopedia: Cyrus of Alexandria". New Advent. Archived from the original on 24 March 2011.
^ "John, Bishop of Nikiu: Chronicle. London (1916). English Translation". www.tertullian.org. Archived from the original on 9 January 2011.
^ Nadvi 2000, p. 522.
^ Cl. Cahen in Encyclopedia of Islam – Jizya
^ Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton University Press. pp. 10, 20. ISBN 978-0-691-00807-3.
^ Fratini, Dan (1 April 2006). "The Battle Of Yarmuk, 636". Military History Online. Archived from the original on 16 May 2011. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
^ ^a ^b Hugh Kennedy (2001). "Chapter Seven: Weapons and equipment in early Muslim armies". The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. London: Routledge. p. 168. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
^ Kennedy, Hugh (2001). "Chapter Eight: Fortification and siege warfare". The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. London: Routledge. p. 183. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
^ Augus Mcbride
^ Bosworth 1996, pp. 157–158.
^ Frastuti 2020, p. 122.
^ Fromherz, Allen. "Islam and the Sea". Oxford Islamic studies. Oxford. Archived from the original on 27 January 2014. Retrieved 31 October 2021.
^ Vasiliev 1935, p. 131-207.
^ Treadgold 1988, pp. 285–286.
^ Abun-Nasr 1987, pp. 55–58.
^ ^a ^b Nadvi 2000, p. 411.
^ ^a ^b Nadvi 2000, p. 408.
^ The Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, Cambridge 1970
^ Bosworth, Marín & Ayalon 1960–2007.
^ ^a ^b "The Muslims Internet Directory: e Process of Choosing the Leader (Caliph) of the Muslims: The Muslim Khilafa". www.2muslims.com. Archived from the original on 7 July 2011.
^ Nadvi 2000, pp. 395, 396, 399.
^ Nadvi 2000, pp. 400, 401.
^ As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used the drahms of the Sasanian-style, the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the emperors in every detail except for the addition of brief Arabic inscriptions like besmellāh in the margins.https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-
^ Crone, Patricia (2005), Medieval Islamic Political Thought, Edinburgh University Press, pp. 308–309, ISBN 978-0-7486-2194-1
^ Shadi Hamid (August 2003), "An Islamic Alternative? Equality, Redistributive Justice, and the Welfare State in the Caliphate of Umar", Renaissance: Monthly Islamic Journal, 13 (8) (see online) Archived August 25, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
^ Nadvi 2000, p. 395.
^ Nadvi 2000, pp. 395–6.
^ Nadvi 2000, p. 396.
^ Nadvi 2000, p. 397.
^ Nadvi 2000, pp. 397–8.
^ ^a ^b Nadvi 2000, p. 399.
^ Nadvi 2000, p. 400.
^ Lewis (2002), p. 72
^ Nadvi 2000, p. 401.
^ "The Ways of the Sahabah: Maulana Abdus Salam Nadvi". Kitaabun. Retrieved 3 December 2024.
^ Nadvi 2000, p. 403-4.
^ Nadvi 2000, pp. 405–6.
^ Nadvi 2000, pp. 407–8.
^ Netton 2013.
^ Fidai, Rafi Ahmad; Shaikh, N. M. (1 January 2002). THE COMPANION OF THE HOLY PROPHET. Adam Publishers & Distributors. ISBN 9788174352231. Archived from the original on 7 February 2024. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ Bennison, Amira K. (30 July 2011). The Great Caliphs: The Golden Age of the 'Abbasid Empire. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 9780857720269. Archived from the original on 7 February 2024. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ Nadvi 2000, pp. 416–7.
^ Nadvi 2000, p. 418.
^ ^a ^b Melchert (2020, p. 63)
^ Melchert (2020, p. 72, note 1)
^ Jeffry R. Halverson (27 April 2010). Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam: The Muslim Brotherhood, Ash'arism, and Political Sunnism. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 69. ISBN 9780230106581.
^ Didier Fassin (31 December 2014). A Companion to Moral Anthropology (reprint ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 235. ISBN 9781118959503.
^ Cristoffel A. O. van Nieuwenhuijze (1997). Paradise Lost: Reflections on the Struggle for Authenticity in the Middle East. BRILL. p. 28. ISBN 9789004106727.
^ Madelung (1997, pp. 77, 81)
^ Momen (1985, p. 21)
^ ^a ^b Madelung (1997, pp. 8–12)
^ ^a ^b Madelung (1997, p. 17)
^ ^a ^b ^c Momen (1985, p. 147)
^ Mavani, Hamid (2013). Religious authority and political thought in Twelver Shiʿism: From Ali to post-Khomeini. Routledge. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-135-04473-2.
^ "(Quran 3:7) It is He who has sent down to you the Book. Parts of it are definitive verses, which are the mother of the Book, while others are metaphorical..." Archived from the original on 1 January 2004. Retrieved 8 October 2021.
^ Momen (1985, pp. 147, 153, 154)
^ Momen (1985, p. 161)
^ Momen (1985, p. 168)
^ Mavani (2013, p. 136)
^ ^a ^b Aga Khan III (1998). Selected Speeches and Writings of Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah. Kegan Paul. p. 1417. ISBN 0710304277.
^ Dana, Nissim (2003). The druze in the Middle East: their faith, leadership, identity and status (1. publ ed.). Brighton: Sussex Acad. Press. ISBN 978-1-903900-36-9.
^ Rane 2010, p. 83.
^ Hoyland, In God's Path, 2015: p. 134
^ Zaman, M.Q., 1998. Sectarianism in Pakistan: The radicalization of Shi‘i and Sunni identities. Modern Asian Studies, 32(3), p. 691.
^ Hoyland, In God's Path, 2015: p. 227
^ Ghabban, A.I.I., Translation and concluding remarks by and Hoyland, R., 2008. The inscription of Zuhayr, the oldest Islamic inscription (24 AH/AD 644–645), the rise of the Arabic script and the nature of the early Islamic state 1. Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, 19(2), pp. 210–237.
^ Hoyland, In God's Path, 2015: p. 98
^ Ghabban, A.I.I., Translation and concluding remarks by and Hoyland, R., 2008. The inscription of Zuhayr, the oldest Islamic inscription (24 AH/AD 644–645), the rise of the Arabic script and the nature of the early Islamic state 1. Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, 19(2), pp. 210–237.
^ ^a ^b ‘Ali ibn Ibrahim Ghabban; Hoyland, Robert (2008). "The inscription of Zuhayr, the oldest Islamic inscription (24 AH⁄AD 644–645), the rise of the Arabic script and the nature of the early Islamic state". Arab Archeology and Epigraphy. 19: 209–236. Retrieved 24 November 2024. 1. In the name of God 2. I, Zuhayr, wrote (this) at the time 'Umar died, year four 3. And twenty
^ "An Inscription Mentioning The Murder Of ʿUthmān B. ʿAffān, c. 36 AH / 656 CE". Islamic Awareness. Retrieved 27 November 2024. The translation of the inscription is: I am Qays, the scribe of Abū Kutayr. Curse of G- -od on [those] who murdered ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān and [those who] have led to the killing without mercy.
^ Nasrallah, Tawfiq (13 June 2022). "Saudi Arabia discovers 1419-year-old Islamic inscription". Gulf News. Retrieved 27 November 2024. "I Zuhair believe in God and wrote a time – Amr bin Affan in the year twenty-four."
^ Madelung 1997, pp. 68–69.
^ Madelung 1997, p. 139.
^ Madelung 1997, p. 308.

Sources

Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. (1987), A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period, Cambridge, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-33767-4
Bosworth, C. Edmund (July 1996). "Arab Attacks on Rhodes in the Pre-Ottoman Period". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 6 (2): 157–164. doi:10.1017/S1356186300007161. JSTOR 25183178. S2CID 163550092.
Charles, Robert H. (2007) [1916]. The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 9781889758879.
Donner, Fred M. (2010). Muhammad and the Believers, at the Origins of Islam. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674050976.
Fitzpatrick, Coeli; Walker, Adam Hani (25 April 2014). Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-61069-178-9 – via Google Books.
Frastuti, Melia (2020). "Reformasi Sistem Administrasi Pemerintahan, Penakhlukkan di Darat Dan Dilautan Pada Era Bani Umayyah". Jurnal Kajian Ekonomi Hukum Syariah (in Malay). 6 (2): 119–127. doi:10.37567/shar-e.v6i2.227. S2CID 234578454.
Hinds, Martin (October 1972). "The Murder of the Caliph Uthman". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 13 (4): 450–469. doi:10.1017/S0020743800025216. JSTOR 162492. S2CID 159763369.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
Hoyland, Robert G. (2015). In God's Path: the Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire. Oxford University Press.
Madelung, Wilferd (1997). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521646960.
McHugo, John (2017). A Concise History of Sunnis & Shi'is. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-1-62-616587-8.
Melchert, Christopher (2020). "The Rightly Guided Caliphs: The Range of Views Preserved in Ḥadīth". In al-Sarhan, Saud (ed.). Political Quietism in Islam: Sunni and Shi'i Practice and Thought. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. pp. 63–79. ISBN 978-1-83860-765-4.
Momen, Moojan (1985). Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780853982005.
Nadvi, Abdus Salam (2000). The ways of the Sahabah. Translated by Muhammad Yunus Qureshi. Karachi: Darul Ishaat. Retrieved 23 November 2024.
Netton, Ian Richard (19 December 2013). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Routledge. ISBN 9781135179601. Archived from the original on 15 August 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti (1995). "Umar ibn al-Khattab". The History of the Khalifahs who took the right way (a translation of the chapters on al-Khulafa' ar-Rashidun from Tarikh al-Khulafa' of Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti) (PDF). Abdassamad Clarke (translator) (3rd ed.). London: Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd. pp. 127–131. Retrieved 16 December 2024.
Sowerwine, James E. (2010). Caliph and Caliphate. Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199806003.
Rane, Halim (2010). Islam and Contemporary Civilisation. Academic Monographs. ISBN 9780522857283.
Treadgold, Warren (1988). The Byzantine Revival, 780–842. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 268. ISBN 978-0-8047-1462-4.
Vasiliev, Alexander A. (1935). Byzance et les Arabes, Tome I: La dynastie d'Amorium (820–867). Corpus Bruxellense Historiae Byzantinae (in French). French ed.: Henri Grégoire, Marius Canard. Brussels: Éditions de l'Institut de philologie et d'histoire orientales. p. 90. OCLC 181731396.
Weeramantry, Judge Christopher G. (1997). Justice Without Frontiers: Furthering Human Rights. Brill Publishers. ISBN 90-411-0241-8.

[1] Versteegh, Kees (2014). The Arabic Language. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 126–132. ISBN 978-0-7486-4529-9.

[2] Taagepera, Rein (September 1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia". International Studies Quarterly. 41 (3): 495. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053. JSTOR 2600793.

[3] Melchert (2020, p. 63, cf. p. 72, note 1)

[britannica-4] Zeidan, Adam. "Rashidun". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 19 November 2024.

[Triana_159-5] Triana, María (2017). Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective. Taylor & Francis. p. 159. ISBN 9781317423683.

[6] Bosworth, C. E.; Marín, Manuela; Ayalon, A. (1960–2007). "Shūrā". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1063.

[FOOTNOTEMelchert202063,_72,_note_1-7] Melchert 2020, pp. 63, 72, note 1.

[FOOTNOTESowerwine20105-8] Sowerwine 2010, p. 5.

[FOOTNOTEMcHugo201793-9] McHugo 2017, p. 93.

[10] Azyumardi Azra (2006). Indonesia, Islam, and Democracy: Dynamics in a Global Context. Equinox Publishing (London). p. 9. ISBN 9789799988812.

[11] C. T. R. Hewer; Allan Anderson (2006). Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps (illustrated ed.). Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd. p. 37. ISBN 9780334040323.

[12] Anheier, Helmut K.; Juergensmeyer, Mark, eds. (2012). Encyclopedia of Global Studies. Sage Publications. p. 151. ISBN 9781412994224.

[13] Claire Alkouatli (2007). Islam (illustrated, annotated ed.). Marshall Cavendish. p. 44. ISBN 9780761421207.

[14] Catharina Raudvere, Islam: An Introduction (I.B.Tauris, 2015), 51–54.

[15] Asma Afsaruddin (2008). The first Muslims: history and memory. Oneworld. p. 55.

[16] Safia Amir (2000). Muslim Nationhood in India: Perceptions of Seven Eminent Thinkers. Kanishka Publishers, Distributors. p. 173. ISBN 9788173913358.

[17] Heather N. Keaney (2013). Medieval Islamic Historiography: Remembering Rebellion. Sira: Companion- versus Caliph-Oriented History: Routledge. ISBN 9781134081066. He also foretold that there would be a caliphate for thirty years (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) that would be followed by kingship.

[18] Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb; Johannes Hendrik Kramers; Bernard Lewis; Charles Pellat; Joseph Schacht (1970). "The Encyclopaedia of Islam". The Encyclopaedia of Islam. 3 (Parts 57–58). Brill: 1164.

[hadith_on_30_years-19] There are a number of hadith about the caliphate lasting for 30 years followed by monarchy.
Abu Dawud. "Sunan Abi Dawud » Model Behavior of the Prophet (Kitab Al-Sunnah) » Hadith 4646. 42 Model Behavior of the Prophet (Kitab Al-Sunnah) (1685)Chapter: The Caliphs(9)باب فِي الْخُلَفَاءِ". sunnah.com. Retrieved 3 December 2024. The Caliphate of Prophecy will last thirty years; then Allah will give the Kingdom of His Kingdom to anyone He wills. Sa'id told that Safinah said to him: Calculate Abu Bakr's caliphate as two years, 'Umar's as ten, 'Uthman's as twelve and 'Ali so and so. Sa'id said: I said to Safinah: They conceive that 'Ali was not a caliph. He replied: The buttocks of Marwan told a lie.

Abu Dawud. "Sunan Abi Dawud » Model Behavior of the Prophet (Kitab Al-Sunnah) - كتاب السنة » Hadith 4647". sunnah.com. Retrieved 3 December 2024. The caliphate of Prophecy will last thirty years; then Allah will give the Kingdom to whom he wishes; or his kingdom to whom he wishes.

al-Tirmidhi. "Jami' at-Tirmidhi » Chapters On Al-Fitan - كتاب الفتن عن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم » Hadith 2226". sunnah.com. Retrieved 3 December 2024. 'The Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said: "Al-Khilafah will be in my Ummah for thirty years, then there will be monarchy after that."' Then Safinah said to me: 'Count the Khilafah of Abu Bakr,' then he said: 'Count the Khilafah of 'Umar and the Khilafah of 'Uthman.' Then he said to me: 'Count the Khilafah of 'Ali."' He said: "So we found that they add up to thirty years."

[20] Abu Dawud. "Sunan Abi Dawud » Model Behavior of the Prophet (Kitab Al-Sunnah) » Hadith 4646. 42 Model Behavior of the Prophet (Kitab Al-Sunnah) (1685)Chapter: The Caliphs(9)باب فِي الْخُلَفَاءِ". sunnah.com. Retrieved 3 December 2024. The Caliphate of Prophecy will last thirty years; then Allah will give the Kingdom of His Kingdom to anyone He wills. Sa'id told that Safinah said to him: Calculate Abu Bakr's caliphate as two years, 'Umar's as ten, 'Uthman's as twelve and 'Ali so and so. Sa'id said: I said to Safinah: They conceive that 'Ali was not a caliph. He replied: The buttocks of Marwan told a lie.

[21] Abu Dawud. "Sunan Abi Dawud » Model Behavior of the Prophet (Kitab Al-Sunnah) - كتاب السنة » Hadith 4647". sunnah.com. Retrieved 3 December 2024. The caliphate of Prophecy will last thirty years; then Allah will give the Kingdom to whom he wishes; or his kingdom to whom he wishes.

[22] -Tirmidhi. "Jami' at-Tirmidhi » Chapters On Al-Fitan - كتاب الفتن عن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم » Hadith 2226". sunnah.com. Retrieved 3 December 2024. 'The Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said: "Al-Khilafah will be in my Ummah for thirty years, then there will be monarchy after that."' Then Safinah said to me: 'Count the Khilafah of Abu Bakr,' then he said: 'Count the Khilafah of 'Umar and the Khilafah of 'Uthman.' Then he said to me: 'Count the Khilafah of 'Ali."' He said: "So we found that they add up to thirty years."

[20] Aqidah.Com (1 December 2009). "The Khilaafah Lasted for 30 Years Then There Was Kingship Which Allaah Gives To Whomever He Pleases". Aqidah.Com. Retrieved 16 August 2014.

[21] Madelung 1997, p. 31.

[MandelungP32-22] Madelung (1997, p. 32)

[FitzpatrickWalkerP3-23] Coeli Fitzpatrick, Adam Hani Walker Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2014), p. 3 [1]

[24] Valerie J. Hoffman, The Essentials of Ibadi Islam (2012), p. 6

[25] Madelung (1997, pp. 32–33)

[26] Fitzpatrick & Walker (2014, p. 186)

[27] Fitzpatrick & Walker (2014, p. 4)

[28] Balazuri: p. 113.

[29] Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 467.

[Parolin52-30] Gianluca Paolo Parolin, Citizenship in the Arab World: Kin, Religion and Nation-state (Amsterdam University Press, 2009), 52.

[31] Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 518

[Zarrinkub5-6-32] The Arab Conquest of Iran and its Aftermath, 'Abd Al-Husein Zarrinkub, The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4, ed. William Bayne Fisher, Richard Nelson Frye (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 5–6.

[33] Battle of Yarmouk River, Spencer Tucker, Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict (ABC-CLIO, 2010), 92.

[34] Khalid ibn Walid, Timothy May, Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, ed. Stanley Sandler (ABC-CLIO, 2002), 458.

[Campo-35] Juan Eduardo Campo, Encyclopedia of Islam Archived 2023-03-12 at the Wayback Machine, Infobase Publishing, 2009

[36] Ibn Kathir, "al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah", part 7.

[37] Ahmed, Nazeer, Islam in Global History: From the Death of Prophet Muhammad to the First World War, American Institute of Islamic History and Cul, 2001, p. 34. ISBN 0-7388-5963-X.

[FOOTNOTEMadelung199749-38] Madelung 1997, p. 49.

[39] Hourani, p. 23.

[jewishvirtuallibrary.org-40] "The Caliphate". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Archived from the original on 9 July 2014. Retrieved 16 April 2014.

[عصام_محمد_شبارو_1995-41] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f شبارو, عصام محمد (1995). First Islamic Arab State (1–41 AH/ 623–661 CE). 3. Arab Renaissance House – Beirut, Lebanon. p. 370.

[FOOTNOTEMadelung1997-42] Madelung 1997.

[43] El-Hibri, Tayeb (19 October 2010). Parable and Politics in Early Islamic History: The Rashidun Caliphs. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-52165-9.

[middle_east-44] Ochsenweld, William; Fisher, Sydney Nettleton (2004). The Middle East: a history (sixth ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-244233-6.

[45] Shafi', Maulana Mufti Muhammad. "Ma'ariful-Qur'an" (PDF). Retrieved 1 July 2022.

[46] Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, p. 1892, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6

[FOOTNOTEHinds1972457-47] Hinds 1972, p. 457.

[Momen_1985_12-_16-48] Momen (1985, pp. 12–16)

[Momen_1985_12,_15-49] Momen (1985, pp. 12, 15)

[50] Gleave, Robert (2021). "ʿAlī B. Abī Ṭālib". In Fleet, Kate (ed.). Encyclopedia of Islam (Third ed.). Brill Reference Online.

[51] Betty, Kelen (1975). Muhammad: the messenger of God. Nashville: T. Nelson. pp. 48, 49. ISBN 9780929093123.

[52] Abbas (2021, p. 34)

[53] Hazleton (2013, pp. 95–97)

[54] Irving, Washington (1868), Mahomet and his successors, vol. 8, New York: G. P. Putnam and Son, p. 71, archived from the original on 7 February 2024, retrieved 6 October 2021

[55] Abbas (2021, pp. 45, 46)

[56] Hazleton (2013, pp. 159–161)

[57] Peters, Francis (1994). Muhammad and the origins of Islam. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 185–187. ISBN 9780791418758.

[58] Kelen, Betty (1975). Muhammad: the messenger of God. Nashville: T. Nelson. pp. 85–87. ISBN 9780929093123.

[59] Watt, W. Montgomery (1953). Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 149–151.

[60] Abbas (2021, pp. 5, 48)

[61] Miskinzoda, Gurdofarid (2015). "The significance of the ḥadīth of the position of Aaron for the formulation of the Shīʿī doctrine of authority". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 78 (1): 82. doi:10.1017/S0041977X14001402. S2CID 159678004.

[62] Momen (1985, pp. 12, 13)

[63] Miskinzoda (2015, p. 69)

[Momen_1985_13-64] Momen (1985, p. 13)

[65] Abbas (2021, pp. 54, 112, 191)

[66] Rogerson, Barnaby (2006). The heirs of the prophet Muhammad: And the roots of the Sunni-Shia schism. London: Abacus. pp. 40, 62. ISBN 9780349117577.

[67] Madelung (1997, pp. 15, 16)

[68] Abbas (2021, p. 87)

[FOOTNOTEDonner2010157–159-69] Donner 2010, pp. 157–159.

[FOOTNOTENetton2013358-70] Netton 2013, p. 358.

[71] Madelung, Wilferd (2003). "Ḥasan B. ʿAli B. Abi Ṭāleb". Encyclopædia Iranica. Encyclopedia Iranica Foundation. Archived from the original on 17 November 2013.

[72] A. I. Alkram. "Chapter 19: The Battle of Chains – Chapter 26: The Last Opposition". Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns. The Sword of Allah. p. 1.
"Chapter 19: The Battle of Chains". p. 1. Archived from the original on 26 January 2002.

"Chapter 20: The Battle of the River". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.

"Chapter 21: The Hell of Walaja". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.

"Chapter 22: The River of Blood". p. 1. Archived from the original on 22 August 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.

"Chapter 23: The Conquest of Hira". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.

"Chapter 24: Anbar and Ain-ut-Tamr". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.

"Chapter 25: Daumat-ul-Jandal Again". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.

"Chapter 26: The Last Opposition". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.

[76] "Chapter 19: The Battle of Chains". p. 1. Archived from the original on 26 January 2002.

[77] "Chapter 20: The Battle of the River". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.

[78] "Chapter 21: The Hell of Walaja". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.

[79] "Chapter 22: The River of Blood". p. 1. Archived from the original on 22 August 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.

[80] "Chapter 23: The Conquest of Hira". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.

[81] "Chapter 24: Anbar and Ain-ut-Tamr". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.

[82] "Chapter 25: Daumat-ul-Jandal Again". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.

[83] "Chapter 26: The Last Opposition". p. 1. Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 21 August 2007.

[73] D. Nicolle, Yarmuk 636 AD – The Muslim Conquest of Syria, p. 43: gives 9,000–10,000

[autogenerated1-74] A.I. Akram. "Chapter 31: The Unkind Cut". The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns. p. 1. Archived from the original on 5 January 2003. Retrieved 16 July 2010.

[75] "Chapter 32: The Battle of Fahl". Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns. The Sword of Allah. p. 1. Archived from the original on 10 January 2003. Retrieved 16 July 2010.

[76] "The Eve of Yarmuk". Khalid bin Al-Waleed. Archived from the original on 2 April 2007.

[77] "The Conquest of Emessa". Khalid bin Al-Waleed. Archived from the original on 6 March 2007.

[78] "Catholic Encyclopedia: Cyrus of Alexandria". New Advent. Archived from the original on 24 March 2011.

[79] "John, Bishop of Nikiu: Chronicle. London (1916). English Translation". www.tertullian.org. Archived from the original on 9 January 2011.

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000522-80] Nadvi 2000, p. 522.

[Cahen-81] Cl. Cahen in Encyclopedia of Islam – Jizya

[82] Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton University Press. pp. 10, 20. ISBN 978-0-691-00807-3.

[83] Fratini, Dan (1 April 2006). "The Battle Of Yarmuk, 636". Military History Online. Archived from the original on 16 May 2011. Retrieved 29 November 2014.

[Kennedy2001-84] Hugh Kennedy (2001). "Chapter Seven: Weapons and equipment in early Muslim armies". The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. London: Routledge. p. 168. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2017.

[85] Kennedy, Hugh (2001). "Chapter Eight: Fortification and siege warfare". The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. London: Routledge. p. 183. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2017.

[86] Augus Mcbride

[FOOTNOTEBosworth1996157–158-87] Bosworth 1996, pp. 157–158.

[FOOTNOTEFrastuti2020122-88] Frastuti 2020, p. 122.

[89] Fromherz, Allen. "Islam and the Sea". Oxford Islamic studies. Oxford. Archived from the original on 27 January 2014. Retrieved 31 October 2021.

[FOOTNOTEVasiliev1935131-207-90] Vasiliev 1935, p. 131-207.

[FOOTNOTETreadgold1988285–286-91] Treadgold 1988, pp. 285–286.

[FOOTNOTEAbun-Nasr198755–58-92] Abun-Nasr 1987, pp. 55–58.

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000411-93] Nadvi 2000, p. 411.

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000408-94] Nadvi 2000, p. 408.

[95] The Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, Cambridge 1970

[96] Bosworth, Marín & Ayalon 1960–2007.

[2muslims-97] "The Muslims Internet Directory: e Process of Choosing the Leader (Caliph) of the Muslims: The Muslim Khilafa". www.2muslims.com. Archived from the original on 7 July 2011.

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000395,_396,_399-98] Nadvi 2000, pp. 395, 396, 399.

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000400,_401-99] Nadvi 2000, pp. 400, 401.

[100] As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used the drahms of the Sasanian-style, the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the emperors in every detail except for the addition of brief Arabic inscriptions like besmellāh in the margins.https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-

[Crone_2005_308–9-101] Crone, Patricia (2005), Medieval Islamic Political Thought, Edinburgh University Press, pp. 308–309, ISBN 978-0-7486-2194-1

[Hamid-102] Shadi Hamid (August 2003), "An Islamic Alternative? Equality, Redistributive Justice, and the Welfare State in the Caliphate of Umar", Renaissance: Monthly Islamic Journal, 13 (8) (see online) Archived August 25, 2011, at the Wayback Machine

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000395-103] Nadvi 2000, p. 395.

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000395–6-104] Nadvi 2000, pp. 395–6.

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000396-105] Nadvi 2000, p. 396.

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000397-106] Nadvi 2000, p. 397.

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000397–8-107] Nadvi 2000, pp. 397–8.

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000399-108] Nadvi 2000, p. 399.

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000400-109] Nadvi 2000, p. 400.

[lewis1-110] Lewis (2002), p. 72

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000401-111] Nadvi 2000, p. 401.

[Kitaabun-112] "The Ways of the Sahabah: Maulana Abdus Salam Nadvi". Kitaabun. Retrieved 3 December 2024.

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000403-4-113] Nadvi 2000, p. 403-4.

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000405–6-114] Nadvi 2000, pp. 405–6.

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000407–8-115] Nadvi 2000, pp. 407–8.

[FOOTNOTENetton2013-116] Netton 2013.

[117] Fidai, Rafi Ahmad; Shaikh, N. M. (1 January 2002). THE COMPANION OF THE HOLY PROPHET. Adam Publishers & Distributors. ISBN 9788174352231. Archived from the original on 7 February 2024. Retrieved 7 May 2016.

[118] Bennison, Amira K. (30 July 2011). The Great Caliphs: The Golden Age of the 'Abbasid Empire. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 9780857720269. Archived from the original on 7 February 2024. Retrieved 7 May 2016.

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000416–7-119] Nadvi 2000, pp. 416–7.

[FOOTNOTENadvi2000418-120] Nadvi 2000, p. 418.

[melchert63-121] Melchert (2020, p. 63)

[122] Melchert (2020, p. 72, note 1)

[123] Jeffry R. Halverson (27 April 2010). Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam: The Muslim Brotherhood, Ash'arism, and Political Sunnism. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 69. ISBN 9780230106581.

[124] Didier Fassin (31 December 2014). A Companion to Moral Anthropology (reprint ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 235. ISBN 9781118959503.

[125] Cristoffel A. O. van Nieuwenhuijze (1997). Paradise Lost: Reflections on the Struggle for Authenticity in the Middle East. BRILL. p. 28. ISBN 9789004106727.

[126] Madelung (1997, pp. 77, 81)

[127] Momen (1985, p. 21)

[:022-128] Madelung (1997, pp. 8–12)

[:114-129] Madelung (1997, p. 17)

[:2102-130] Momen (1985, p. 147)

[131] Mavani, Hamid (2013). Religious authority and political thought in Twelver Shiʿism: From Ali to post-Khomeini. Routledge. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-135-04473-2.

[132] "(Quran 3:7) It is He who has sent down to you the Book. Parts of it are definitive verses, which are the mother of the Book, while others are metaphorical..." Archived from the original on 1 January 2004. Retrieved 8 October 2021.

[133] Momen (1985, pp. 147, 153, 154)

[:40-134] Momen (1985, p. 161)

[:41-135] Momen (1985, p. 168)

[136] Mavani (2013, p. 136)

[:2-137] Aga Khan III (1998). Selected Speeches and Writings of Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah. Kegan Paul. p. 1417. ISBN 0710304277.

[138] Dana, Nissim (2003). The druze in the Middle East: their faith, leadership, identity and status (1. publ ed.). Brighton: Sussex Acad. Press. ISBN 978-1-903900-36-9.

[FOOTNOTERane201083-139] Rane 2010, p. 83.

[RGHIGP2015:134-140] Hoyland, In God's Path, 2015: p. 134

[141] Zaman, M.Q., 1998. Sectarianism in Pakistan: The radicalization of Shi‘i and Sunni identities. Modern Asian Studies, 32(3), p. 691.

[RGHIGP2015:227-142] Hoyland, In God's Path, 2015: p. 227

[143] Ghabban, A.I.I., Translation and concluding remarks by and Hoyland, R., 2008. The inscription of Zuhayr, the oldest Islamic inscription (24 AH/AD 644–645), the rise of the Arabic script and the nature of the early Islamic state 1. Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, 19(2), pp. 210–237.

[RGHIGP2015:98-144] Hoyland, In God's Path, 2015: p. 98

[145] Ghabban, A.I.I., Translation and concluding remarks by and Hoyland, R., 2008. The inscription of Zuhayr, the oldest Islamic inscription (24 AH/AD 644–645), the rise of the Arabic script and the nature of the early Islamic state 1. Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, 19(2), pp. 210–237.

[AiIGIoZ-2008-146] ‘Ali ibn Ibrahim Ghabban; Hoyland, Robert (2008). "The inscription of Zuhayr, the oldest Islamic inscription (24 AH⁄AD 644–645), the rise of the Arabic script and the nature of the early Islamic state". Arab Archeology and Epigraphy. 19: 209–236. Retrieved 24 November 2024. 1. In the name of God 2. I, Zuhayr, wrote (this) at the time 'Umar died, year four 3. And twenty

[IA-Uthman-Inscription-147] "An Inscription Mentioning The Murder Of ʿUthmān B. ʿAffān, c. 36 AH / 656 CE". Islamic Awareness. Retrieved 27 November 2024. The translation of the inscription is: I am Qays, the scribe of Abū Kutayr. Curse of G- -od on [those] who murdered ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān and [those who] have led to the killing without mercy.

[GN-SA-Discovers-2022-148] Nasrallah, Tawfiq (13 June 2022). "Saudi Arabia discovers 1419-year-old Islamic inscription". Gulf News. Retrieved 27 November 2024. "I Zuhair believe in God and wrote a time – Amr bin Affan in the year twenty-four."

[FOOTNOTEMadelung199768–69-149] Madelung 1997, pp. 68–69.

[FOOTNOTEMadelung1997139-150] Madelung 1997, p. 139.

[FOOTNOTEMadelung1997308-151] Madelung 1997, p. 308.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

[91]

[92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]

[100]