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Rwanda Defence Force

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Rwanda Defence Force
Kinyarwanda: Ingabo z'u Rwanda
French: Forces rwandaises de défense
Swahili: Jeshi la Ulinzi la Rwanda
Founded1962
Current form1994
Service branchesRwandan Land Force
Rwandan Air Force
Rwandan Reserve Force
HeadquartersKigali[1]
WebsiteOfficial website
Leadership
Commander-in-ChiefPaul Kagame
Minister of DefenceJuvenal Marizamunda
Chief of Defence StaffGeneral Mubarak Muganga
Personnel
Available for
military service		2,625,917 males, age 18–49[3],
2,608,110 females, age 18–49[3]
Fit for
military service		1,685,066 males, age 18–49[3],
1,749,580 females, age 18–49[3]
Active personnel33,000[2]
Expenditure
Budget$91 million (2015)[2]
Percent of GDP1.1% (2015)[2]
Industry
Foreign suppliers Brazil
 China
 India
 Indonesia
 Israel
 Poland
 South Africa
 Turkey
 Vietnam
Related articles
HistoryMilitary history of Rwanda
Rwandan Civil War
Kibeho Massacre
First Congo War
Second Congo War
Six-Day War (2000)
Dongo conflict
2009 Eastern Congo offensive
Insurgency in Cabo Delgado
Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda tensions (2022–present)
RanksMilitary ranks of Rwanda

The Rwanda Defence Force (RDF, Kinyarwanda: Ingabo z'u Rwanda, French: Forces rwandaises de défense, Swahili: Nguvu ya Ulinzi ya Watu wa Rwanda) is the military of the Republic of Rwanda. The country's armed forces were originally known as the Forces armées rwandaises (FAR),but following the Rwandan Civil War of 1990–1994 and the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi, the victorious Rwandan Patriotic Front (Inkotanyi) renamed it the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), its army name during the struggle of 1990–1994. Later, it was renamed to its current name.

The Rwanda Defence Force's mission as provided in the Constitution of Rwanda is:

  • to defend the territorial integrity and the national sovereignty of the Republic;
  • to collaborate with other security organs in safe-guarding public order and enforcement of law;
  • to participate in humanitarian activities in case of disasters;
  • to contribute to the development of the country;
  • to participate in international peace-keeping missions, humanitarian assistance and training.

After it conquered the country in July 1994 in the aftermath of the Rwandan genocide of April to July 1994, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) decided to split into a political division (which retained the RPF name) and a military division, which would serve as the official army of the Rwandan state.

Defence spending continues to represent an important share of the national budget, largely due to continuing security problems along Rwanda's frontiers with the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Burundi, and lingering concerns about Uganda's intentions towards its former ally.

There is an ongoing, low-level insurgency from Rwandan rebels based in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, mainly the Forces démocratiques de libération du Rwanda (or FDLR).

The RDF is regularly deployed in peacekeeping missions in Africa. Rwanda is now one of the largest contributors of personnel on UN missions.

Historical outline 1960–1994

[edit]
Hutu militants
Rwandan genocide (1994)
Refugee crisis
RDR (1995–1996)
1st and 2nd Congo War
  • ALiR (1996–2001)
  • FDLR (2000–present)

While Rwanda was a Belgian colony administered as a part of Ruanda-Urundi, its security was provided by the Force Publique, the colonial army of the Belgian Congo. As the Congo was due to achieve independence in 1960 and withdraw its forces, the Belgian Special Resident decided to create an indigenous army to provide for Rwanda's security. On 19 May 1960, he ordered the recruitment of a 650-strong military force to become the Garde Territoriale. The force was later renamed the Garde Nationale.[4] The U.S. Army's Area Handbook for Rwanda, compiled in 1968–9, describes the security forces of Rwanda in 1969 as the 2,500 strong National Guard and the National Police, about 1,200 strong.[5]

The Forces armées rwandaises (FAR) was the national army of Rwanda until July 1994, when the government collapsed in the aftermath of the Rwandan genocide and the war with the Rwandan Patriotic Front (Inkotanyi). The FAR was estimated at 7,000 strong, including approximately 1,200 members of the Gendarmerie. Elite troops included the Presidential Guard, estimated at between 1,000 and 1,300 troops, as well as the Paracommando and Reconnaissance units.[6] These two units were of battalion strength by 1994, and then counted a total of 800 troops.[7]

In response to the RPF invasion of 1990, the 5,000-man FAR rapidly expanded, with French training assistance (as many as 1,100 French troops were in Rwanda at a time[8]), to some 30,000 by 1992.[9]

The Arusha Accords, signed on 4 August 1993, laid out a detailed plan for the integration of the Rwandan Government and Rwandan Patriotic Front military forces.[10] The Rwandan government was to provide 60% of the troops for the new integrated army, but would have to share command positions with the RPF down to the level of battalion. The new army was to consist of no more than 19,000 soldiers and 6,000 Gendarmerie.[11] However radical elements within the Rwandan government were implacably opposed to implementation of the Accords and, instead, began the planning that would lay the foundations for the genocide.

The Reconnaissance Battalion's commander, François-Xavier Nzuwonemeye, and his subordinates played a key role during the genocide. Together with the Reconnaissance Battalion, the Paracommando Battalion under Major Aloys Ntabakuze and the Presidential Guard under Major Protais Mpiranya became the three most significant genocidare units.

Col. Marcel Gatsinzi was briefly named chief of staff of the Rwandan army from 6 to 16 April 1994, but was replaced by Augustin Bizimungu, who was also promoted to major general on 18 April,[12] since Col. Gatsinzi opposed the genocide.[13] Bizimungu was only briefly chief of staff before fleeing the country. Many soldiers of the FAR have since been implicated by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in the genocide, including its leader during the genocide, Col. Théoneste Bagosora, who was chief of the cabinet (private office) of the Ministry of Defence prior to the genocide.

Many elements of the former Rwandan regime, including soldiers of the FAR, fled to eastern Zaire after the RPF victory, where they formed the Rassemblement Démocratique pour le Rwanda (RDR), which later became the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), which is still active in eastern Congo's North Kivu Province.

Post-1994 operations

[edit]

First Congo War, 1996 to 1997

[edit]

See main article First Congo War.

Second Congo War, 1998 to 2003

[edit]

See main article Second Congo War.

Circa 2000 during the Second Congo War, the Rwanda Patriotic Army unofficially admitted to having 4,000 to 8,000 troops deployed in the Congo, according to the Economist Intelligence Unit, but this was believed to be a substantial understatement.[14] The International Crisis Group estimated that the RPA has between 17,000 and 25,000 troops deployed in the Congo. In April 2001, a United Nations report on the exploitation of the Congo, said the RPA had a minimum of 25,000 troops in the Congo, an estimate the report attributes to "military specialists with a great deal of experience in the region."[15] During the deployment in the DRC, Rwandan forces fought the so-called "Six-Day War" against Ugandan forces over the city of Kisangani, leaving at least 1,000 dead.

On 17 September 2002, the first Rwandan soldiers were withdrawn from the eastern DRC. On 5 October Rwanda announced the completion of its withdrawal; MONUC confirmed the departure of over 20,000 Rwandan soldiers.

Ongoing insurgency

[edit]

There is an ongoing, low-level insurgency from Rwandan rebels based in the Democratic Republic of the Congo; mainly the Forces démocratiques de libération du Rwanda (or FDLR)[16] During early 2009 the RDF operated in eastern DRC against FDLR rebels in joint operations with the armed forces of the DRC. The initial 2009 deployment was code-named Operation Umoja Wetu. The RDF re-entered the DRC in 2009 to assist the DRC in putting down the Dongo Rebellion. These operations inside the DRC did not prevent cross-border attacks within Rwanda during late 2012, August 2013, December 2018 and December 2019.

There has also been a small number of attacks in southern Rwanda from Burundi-based rebels. These attacks are usually blamed on the National Forces of Liberation (Forces nationales de libération), or FNL.[17][18] The FNL is the armed wing of an externally-based opposition party: the Rwandan Movement for Democratic Change, or MRCD, which was formed by Paul Rusesabagina and Callixte Nsabimana.[19] Rusesabagina is considered by some to be a hero of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide and his actions are portrayed in the Hollywood film 'Hotel Rwanda'. Rusesabagina and Nsabimana were kidnapped and flown to Kigali, where they were arrested, in September 2020. Their trial continues.[20] Incursions into southern Rwanda by armed members of the FNL occurred in 2018 and 2019[21][20] and, more recently, on 27 June 2020[22] and 23 May 2021.[23]

The Rwanda National Congress is another opposition group reported by the Kigali Government as carrying out attacks in Rwanda.[24][25] These include blame for grenade attacks in Rwanda between 2010 and 2014 that killed at least 17 people and injured over 400 others.[26]

Mozambique

[edit]

On 9 July 2021, a 1000-strong joint Rwandan military police force started deploying to northern Mozambique to assist the national security forces in combating Islamic extremists.[27][28][29] The Joint Task Force was commanded by Maj. Gen. Innocent Kabandana and initially comprised 700 soldiers and 300 police.[30] The Rwandan deployment to Mozambique under a bilateral agreement pre-empted a long-planned Southern African Development Council (SADC) military operation.[31]

The Joint Task Force was soon in action and within the month was reported to have overrun a terrorist base and inflicted casualties.[32][33] In August 2021 it was reported that the contingent had eliminated 14 insurgents in total.[34] The port town of Mocimboa da Praia was then recaptured from insurgents.[35]

Operations then became more scattered across the northern province, and President Kagame announced in February 2022 that 80% of the enemy occupied Cabo Delgado province had been recaptured since mid-2021.[36] At this time the Rwandan Joint Task Force was commanded by Brig. Gen. P. Muhizi.[37]

The Joint Task Force was reported to have increased to 2,500 personnel in December 2022 and, in January 2023, the commander was Maj. Gen. Eugene Nkubito.[38][39]

On 4 August 2023, there was a change of command when Maj. Gen. Alexis Kagame assumed command of the Joint Task Force from Maj. Gen Eugene Nkubito and the Task Force Battle Group (TFBG) commander Brig. Gen. F. Mutembe handed over to Col. T. Bahizi, the incoming TFBG 3 Commander.[40][41]

Peacekeeping support operations

[edit]

The RDF has deployed forces on a number of UN and AU-endorsed peacekeeping support operations in Africa. Rwanda is now one of the largest contributors of personnel on UN missions. Deployments include:

African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS) Units were deployed on year-long tours of duty between August 2004 and December 2007. The peak commitment was four battalions.

United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS) In the first ever deployment of Rwandan personnel on a United Nations mission, a small contingent of 254 personnel was deployed for year-long tours between November 2005[42] and September 2010.

African Union/ United Nations Hybrid Mission to Darfur (UNAMID) This UN mission superseded the AU mission in the Darfur region of Sudan. Infantry battalions have been deployed, for year-long tours, between January 2008 and mid-2020. Starting with a peak deployed strength of four battalions, the numbers had declined by mid-2020 to two battalions.

United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) In April 2012 a Rwandan contingent was deployed to this UN mission in the newly independent country of South Sudan. The deployment was continuing in mid-2020, by when an aviation unit, two infantry battalions and a Regional Protection Force battalion were deployed.

AU-led International Support Mission to the CAR (MISCA) This African Union mission to the troubled Central African Republic was joined, between January and September 2014, by a Rwandan mechanised battalion.[43][44]

United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA) This UN mission superseded the AU-led mission in the Central African Republic. Rwanda provides a protection battalion in the capital of Bangui, a level two hospital in the town of Bria and, from September 2017, a battle group comprising a mechanised infantry battalion. During August 2021 the Rwandan was expanded again, when a third Rwandan infantry battalion was deployed to the CAR.[45]

Command

[edit]
Main article: Chief of Defence Staff (Rwanda)

The RDF command comprises:[46]

  • High Command Council of the RDF
  • General Staff of the RDF

Organisation

[edit]

Ranks

[edit]
Main article: Military ranks of Rwanda

Training establishments

[edit]

Major training centres include:[47][48][49][50]

  • RDF Command and Staff College, Nyakinama (Musanze District, Northern Province)
  • Rwanda Military Academy, Gako (Bugesera District, Eastern Province)
  • School of Infantry (Combat Training Centre), Gabiro
  • Basic Military Training Centre (BMTC), Nasho (Kirehe District, Eastern Province)

Land Forces

[edit]
The RDF providing a guard of honour.

Several sources, including Gérard Prunier, document U.S. aid to the RPA before the First Congo War.[51] The officially admitted part of the training was Joint Combined Exchange Training. Prunier strongly implies the United States supplied communications equipment, vehicles, boots, and medicines to the RPA before the war began and after it broke out, delivered second-hand Warsaw Pact weapons and ammunition either directly to Goma or by airdrop along the AFDL front lines. He reports that after the war's outbreak, the U.S. Air Force had switched from using C-141 Starlifters and C-5 Galaxys to deliver the non-lethal aid to Kigali Airport and Entebbe Airport, to airdrops by C-130 Hercules aircraft.[52]

From July 1994 until December 1997 the RPA had six brigades, as designated in the Arusha Accords: 402nd in Kigali and Kigali Rurale Prefecture; 201st in Kibungo, Umatura, and Byumba Prefectures; 301st in Butare, Gikongoro, and Cyangugu Prefectures; 305th in Gitatama and Kibuye Prefectures; and 211th in Gisenyi and Ruhengeri Prefectures. The brigade boundaries mirrored the political administrative boundaries, which often complicated military operations.[53] During the First Congo War the brigade headquarters remained inside Rwanda but directed operations inside the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[54]

Jane's World Armies said in July 2009 that the RDF is deployed to protect the country's borders and defend against external aggression. There are four divisions, each deploying three brigades:

  • 1 Division, based at Kigali, covers the central and east region;
  • 2 Division, based at Byumba, covers the north and east region;
  • 3 Division, based at Gisenyi, covers the northwest region; and
  • 4 (Mechanised) Division, based at Butare, covers the southwest region.[55][56][57]
  • Artillery Division[58]

Brigades reported include:

  • Republican Guard Brigade, Kigali[59]
  • Special Forces Brigade[60]
  • Engineering Brigade[61]
  • 201 Brigade, Kibungo[62][63]
  • 204 Brigade, Gasabo District, Kigali[64]
  • 211 Brigade, Gisenyi[62][65]
  • 301 Brigade, Butare[62]
  • 305 Brigade, Gitatama[62][65]
  • 307 Brigade[66]
  • 402 Brigade, Kigali[62]
  • 408 Brigade, Rusizi District[62][67]
  • 411 Brigade
  • 501 Brigade
  • 503 Brigade
  • 511 Brigade, Gicumbe District

Many soldiers from the former Rwandan Armed Forces (FAR), the national army under the previous regime, have been incorporated into the RDF since 1994. This process began soon after the genocide in January 1995, when several former FAR officers were given senior positions in the new armed forces: Col. (later Gen.) Marcel Gatsinzi became the Deputy Chief of Staff of the RPA, Col. Balthazar Ndengeyinka became commander of the 305th Brigade, Lt. Col. Laurent Munyakazi took command of the 99th Battalion, and Lt. Col. (later Brig. Gen.) Emmanuel Habyarimana became an RPA Member of Parliament and Director of Training in the Ministry of Defence. Gen. Gatsinzi later became Director of Security and then Minister of Defence in 2002.[68]

Rwandan soldiers carrying equipment at Kigali International Airport

Marine Unit

[edit]

The Rwandan Land Forces also contain a marine unit which operates on Lake Kivu. The unit utilizes several Fabio Buzzi powerboats equipped as fast attack craft, each armed with a single Chinese Type-85 heavy machine gun.[69] In 2021, Rwanda deployed several of the powerboats to operate in littoral waters in the Indian Ocean as part of its deployment to support Mozambique during the Insurgency in Cabo Delgado.

Air Force

[edit]
Main article: Rwandan Air Force
Current roundel of Rwanda
Rwanda Defense Force MEDEVAC skills, January 2011 – Flickr – US Army Africa (6)
Rwanda Defense Force MEDEVAC skills, January 2011 – Flickr – US Army Africa

After achieving independence in 1962, the air arm (Force aérienne rwandaise) was formed with Belgian help.[70] By 1972 the first modern equipment started to arrive in the form of seven Alouette IIIs. Other deliveries included Aérospatiale Gazelle, Britten-Norman Islanders, Nord Noratlas, SOCATA Guerrier armed light planes and Eurocopter AS350 Écureuil. After fighting began between the RPA and the government in 1990 most aircraft were shot down, destroyed on the ground or crashed. Few survived.

Flight International's World Air Forces 2017 states the Rwandan Air Force has twelve Mil Mi-8/17 helicopters, five Mil Mi-24 and four Aerospatiale Gazelle SA.342.[71]

During December 2012 an aviation unit of three helicopters was sent to the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS).[72] The Rwandan Aviation Unit was subsequently increased to six helicopters – reportedly Mi-17.[73]

Aircraft

[edit]
Type Manufacturer Origin Class Role In service[71] Photo
Mi-24 Mil  Soviet Union Helicopter Attack 5
Mi-8/17 Mil  Soviet Union Helicopter Transport 12
SA.342 Gazelle Aerospatiale  France Helicopter Utility 3

Equipment

[edit]

Army equipment

[edit]
Name Type Origin Photo Quantity[74]
T-55 Tank  Soviet Union 34[75]
Ratel IFV Infantry fighting vehicle  South Africa 35[75]
BMP-1 Infantry fighting vehicle  Soviet Union ?[75]
RG-31 Nyala Infantry fighting vehicle  South Africa 36[75]
WZ-551 Armoured personnel carrier  China 20[75]
Panhard M3 Armoured personnel carrier  France 16
BTR-60 Armoured personnel carrier  Soviet Union ?[75]
Otokar Cobra Infantry mobility vehicle  Turkey 30–49[76][77]
Véhicule Blindé Léger Armoured car  France 16[75]
Panhard AML Armoured car  France 12
RM-70 Multiple rocket launcher  Czechoslovakia 5[75]
LAR-160 Multiple rocket launcher  Israel 5[75]
122 mm howitzer 2A18 (D-30) Artillery  Soviet Union 6[75]
105mm M101 Artillery  United States ?[75]

Small arms

[edit]
Name Type Origin Photo Caliber
FN FAL[78] Battle rifle  Belgium 7.62x51mm NATO
AKM[79] Assault rifle  Soviet Union 7.62x39mm
Vektor R5[80][81] Assault rifle  South Africa 5.56×45mm NATO
IWI Tavor[82] Assault rifle  Israel 5.56×45mm NATO
Type 56 assault rifle[83] Assault rifle  China 7.62x39mm
Zastava M76[84] Sniper rifle  Yugoslavia 7.92×57mm Mauser
M2 Browning[78] Heavy machine gun  United States .50 BMG (12.7×99mm NATO)
DShK[85] Heavy machine gun  Soviet Union 12.7×108mm
Vektor SS-77[86] General purpose machine gun  South Africa 7.62×51mm NATO
PKM General purpose machine gun  Soviet Union 7.62×54mmR
IMI Uzi[78] Submachine gun  Israel 9mm Parabellum
Browning Hi-Power[78] Semi-automatic weapon  Belgium 9mm Parabellum
RPG-7 Rocket launcher  Soviet Union

Characteristics

[edit]

Marching style

[edit]
The military parade of the RDF during the Liberation Day celebrations in 2014.
Members of the Rwanda Defense Force move into formation after arriving in Bangui, Central African Republic (CAR), 16 January 2014 140116-A-ZZ999-007

Despite not being a former British colony, Rwanda has generally used British foot drill during official parades and functions. Since 2019, however, the RDF has adopted the Chinese variant of the goosestep, which is today mostly used by countries in Central and Eastern Europe, by communist countries, as well as by countries with a large Prussian/German influence (Russia, China and Chile all being examples of each). It was first displayed in April during the military parade in honor of the Rwandan genocide's silver jubilee on Liberation Day, in which over 1,500 RDF soldiers and policemen trained by six members of the Beijing Garrison Honor Guard Battalion of the People's Liberation Army's Central Theater Command marched while using the goosestep. Mandarin parade commands are used, such as "Look to the right!" to which the soldiers respond with "One! Two!", which is done similarly in the PLA honor guard.[87][88] Prior to this, only the rebels utilized the goosestep during the Civil War, as they received military training in the neighboring country of Uganda, which uses the goosestep.[89]

RDF Band

[edit]
The RDF Band.

The Rwanda Defence Forces Army Band is the military band of the RDF. The RDF Band was founded in 1992 during the Rwandan Civil War and gave its first performance on 8 March 1992. After the war, it was re-established with 46 members. Although it represents the defence forces, it falls under the command of the Land Forces.[90]

Endnotes

[edit]
  1. ^ "World Defence Almanac". Military Technology. XXXII (1). Bonn, Germany: Monch Publishing Group. 2008. ISSN 0722-3226.
  2. ^ a b c IISS 2016, p. 462.
  3. ^ "Rwanda". The World Factbook. 15 October 2024. Retrieved 17 October 2024.
  4. ^ Lemarchand 1970, p. 280.
  5. ^ Richard F,. Nyrop, 'Area Handbook for Rwanda,' DA 550-84, research completed 1 April 1969, p.184-185
  6. ^ Des Forges, 1999, p.43
  7. ^ Des Forges, 1999, p.194
  8. ^ Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis, p.163, cited in Des Forges, 1999, p.118
  9. ^ Alison Des Forges, 'Leave None to Tell the Story,' Human Rights Watch, March 1999, ISBN 1-56432-171-1, p.60
  10. ^ See Arusha Accords, hosted at University of Ulster, pages 49–71
  11. ^ Des Forges, 1999, p.124-125
  12. ^ Guichaoua, André (2015). From War to Genocide: Criminal Politics in Rwanda, 1990–1994. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-299-29820-3.
  13. ^ Des Forges, 1999, p. 264
  14. ^ "The Rwandan patriotic Army and Military Commercialism in Eastern Congo" (PDF). Retrieved 24 October 2019.
  15. ^ United Nations Security Council, Report of the Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, S/2001/357, 12 April 2001
  16. ^ 'Militia Leader Wanted for War Crimes Killed in Congo', Voice of America (Washington, DC), 19 September 2019.
  17. ^ "Burundi rebels killed in clashes with DR Congo troops". Defenceweb. Reuters. 15 April 2019. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
  18. ^ Munyaneza, James (2 October 2020). "Victims of MRCD-FLN attacks in southern Rwanda". 'The New Times', Kigali. Retrieved 18 February 2021
  19. ^ "Paul Rusesabagina admits backing rebels, denies violence'". Aljazeera (Doha). 25 September 2020. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
  20. ^ a b Munyaneza, James (24 May 2021). "Rwanda army says foils attack near Burundi border". The New Times. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
  21. ^ Munyaneza 2020.
  22. ^ PRESS RELEASE ON RUHERU/NYARUGURU ATTACK (UPDATED), Ministry of Defence (Kigali), 27 June 2018. Retrieved 18 July 2020, <https://mod.gov.rw/news-detail/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=4709&cHash=38b9603bc975bb9b987cd3077ddc72d4>
  23. ^ Munyaneza 2021.
  24. ^ Kleinfeld, P. (2019) In Eastern Congo, a Local Conflict Flares as Regional Tensions Rise, The New Humanitarian (Geneva), 28 October 2019.
  25. ^ Karuhanga, J. (2019) 'A Glimpse at Anti-Rwanda Militia Groups in Eastern DR Congo', The New Times (Kigali), 10 December 2019.
  26. ^ Bishumba, N. (2019) 'Ugandans, Burundians Among Captured RNC Militia Combatants', The New Times (Kigali), 2 October 2019.
  27. ^ Karuhanga, J. (2021) 'Rwanda Deployment to Mozambique Mission Specific, Not Time Specific – RDF', The New Times (Kigali), 10 July 2021.
  28. ^ Vieira, A. (2021) 'Rwandan Troops Arrive in Mozambique to Help Fight Insurgents', The Nation (Nairobi), 11 July 2021.
  29. ^ 'Rwandan Forces Will Only Leave When Mission Is Over,' Agencia de Informacao de Mocambique (Maputo), 12 July 2021.
  30. ^ 'Rwandan Forces Will Only Leave When Mission Is Over', Agencia de Informacao de Mocambique (Maputo), 12 July 2021.
  31. ^ 'SADC to Deploy Troops in Mozambique', The Herald (Harare), 24 June 2021.
  32. ^ Karuhanga, James (27 July 2021). "Mozambican, Rwandan troops overrun major insurgents base in Cabo Delgado". The New Times. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
  33. ^ Mangwiro, C. (2021) 'Govt Says Influx of African Troops Will Target Cabo Delgado Insurgents', Voice of America (Washington, DC), 30 July 2021.
  34. ^ Martin, Guy (3 August 2021). "Rwanda says it has killed 14 insurgents in Mozambique". defenceWeb. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
  35. ^ 'Cabo Delgado – a Closer Look at Rwanda-Mozambican Forces’ Joint Operations', The New Times (Kigali), 16 August 2021.
  36. ^ 'Security Problems in DR Congo Affect the Whole Region – Kagame', The New Times (Kigali), 8 February 2022.
  37. ^ 'RWANDA SECURITY FORCES (RSF) AND FORÇAS ARMADAS DE DEFENSA DE MOÇAMBIQUE (FADM) DISMANTLE NEW TERRORIST HIDEOUTS', Ministry of Defence, Kigali, 14 February 2022 <https://www.mod.gov.rw/news-detail/rwanda-security-forces-rsf-and-forcas-armadas-de-defensa-de-mocambique-fadm-dismantle-new-terrorist-hideouts>
  38. ^ Bahati, Moise M. (22 February 2023). "Rwanda, Mozambique step up fight against terrorism – President Nyusi". The New Times. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
  39. ^ "'MOZAMBIQUE'S DEFENCE MINISTER VISITS RWANDA SECURITY FORCES IN MOCIMBOA DA PRAIA, CABO DELGADO PROVINCE'". Ministry of Defence, Kigali. Retrieved 26 August 2024.
  40. ^ Ministry of Defence, Kigali, website, 31 July 2023, "RDF ARMY CHIEF OF STAFF SEES OFF RELIEF FORCE DEPARTING TO CABO DELGADO, MOZAMBIQUE", https://www.mod.gov.rw/news-detail/rdf-army-chief-of-staff-sees-off-relief-force-departing-to-cabo-delgado-mozambique
  41. ^ Ministry of Defence, Kigali, website, 4 August 2023, "MAJ GEN ALEX KAGAME TAKES OVER THE JOINT TASK FORCE COMMAND IN MOZAMBIQUE", https://www.mod.gov.rw/news-detail/maj-gen-alex-kagame-takes-over-the-joint-task-force-command-in-mozambique
  42. ^ Akanga, E. (2005) 'Sudan UN Mission Force Set to Leave', The New Times (Kigali), 20 November 2005.
  43. ^ 'Rwanda deploys peacekeeping troops to the Central African Republic', Ministry of Defence website, Kigali, 15 January 2014.
  44. ^ Waugh, L. (2014) Central African Republic: Will MINUSCA Deployment Make a Difference in CAR? African Arguments, 15 September 2014.
  45. ^ 'Rwanda Deploys an Additional Infantry Battalion to MINUSCA', Department of Defence, Kigali, 3 August 2021, <https://www.mod.gov.rw/news-detail/rwanda-deploys-an-additional-infantry-battalion-to-minusca>
  46. ^ Rwandan Ministry of Defence, Law Establishing Rwanda Defence Forces, LAW N° 19/2002 of 17 May 2002, J.O. n° 13, 1 July 2002
  47. ^ Kagire, E. (2010) ‘240 Officer Cadets Pass-Out’, The New Times (Kigali), 26 March 2010.
  48. ^ Karuhanga, J. (2011) ‘Gen. Karenzi to Head Nyakinama Military Academy’, The New Times (Kigali), 23 March 2011.
  49. ^ Nkurunziza, S. & Musoni, E. (2012) ‘Senior Officers College Inaugurated’, The New Times (Kigali), 24 July 2012.
  50. ^ Karinganire, E.D. (2012) ‘RDF Command and Staff College inaugurated’, Rwanda Focus (Kigali), 24 July 2012.
  51. ^ Gerard Prunier, From Genocide to Continental War, 2009, p.126-127 and "Congo News Channel: Rwanda: Installing a US Protectorate in Central Africa the US was behind the Rwandan Genocide". Archived from the original on 22 October 2009. Retrieved 17 November 2009.
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  57. ^ Munyaneza, J. (2019) ‘Gen Mupenzi Named New Army Chief of Staff, The New Times (Kigali), 9 April 2019.
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Bibliography

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  • Cooper, Tom, Africa@War Volume 14: Great Lakes Conflagration, The Second Congo War, 1998–2003, Helion & Co Ltd, England, 2013.
  • Dallaire, Lt. Gen. Romeo, Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda, Random House of Canada Ltd, Toronto, 2003.
  • Des Forges, Alison, 'Leave None to Tell the Story,' Human Rights Watch, March 1999, ISBN 1-56432-171-1
  • Fontanellaz, Adrien & Cooper, Tom, Africa@War Volume 24: The Rwandan Patriotic Front 1990–1994, Helion & Co Ltd, England, and Thirty Degrees South Publishers Pty Ltd, Johannesburg, 2015.
  • IISS (2016). The Military Balance 2016. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-85743-835-2.
  • Lemarchand, René (1970). Rwanda and Burundi. New York: Praeger Publishers. OCLC 254366212.
  • Nyrop, Richard F., Brenneman, Lyle E., Hibbs, Roy V., James, Charlene A., MacKnight, Susan & McDonald, Gordon C., Army Area Handbook for Rwanda, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969. Research and writing completed 1 April 1969.
  • Orth, Rick (former United States Army attache in Rwanda), Rwanda's Hutu Extremist genocidal Insurgency: An Eyewitness Perspective, Small Wars & Insurgencies, Volume 12, Number 1, Spring 2001.
  • Prunier, Gerard, From Genocide to Continental War: The "Congolese" Conflict and the Crisis of Contemporary Africa, C. Hurst & Co, 2009. ISBN 978-1-85065-523-7

Further reading

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