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Underground education

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The Greek "Secret School" ("Krifó scholió"). Oil painting by Nikolaos Gyzis, 1885/86.

Underground education or clandestine education refers to various practices of teaching carried out at times and places where such educational activities were deemed illegal.

Examples of places where widespread clandestine education practices took place included education of Blacks during the slave period in the USA and the Secret Teaching Organization in Poland under the Nazis.

History

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Early modern era

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There is a Greek - mostly oral - tradition claiming that secret schools (Krifo scholio) operated during the Ottoman period. There is scant written evidence for this and many historians view it as a national myth. Others believe that the Greek secret school is a legend with a core of truth. According to certain sources, secret schools for Albanians operated in late 19th century by Albanian-speaking communities and Bektashi priests[1][2] or nationalists[3] under Ottoman rule.

During the era of slavery in the United States, the education of enslaved African Americans was discouraged and eventually made illegal in most of the Southern states. In protest, a number of American activists engaged in illegal underground education of slaves.[4][5]

In the 19th century during the partitions of Poland, various forms of the underground education, promoting teaching in Polish language and about the Polish culture, often repressed by the partitioning powers, sprung up on Polish territories. Most famous of these was the Flying University that operated in Warsaw.[6][7][8][9][10] Similarly by the break of the 19th and 20th centuries in Lithuania, a clandestine school [lt] (slaptoji mokykla) operated in almost every village, because of the Lithuanian press ban (1865 to 1904) in the Russian Empire.[11]

In Ireland during the 18th and 19th century, "Hedge schools" were illegal schools operated by Catholics and Presbyterians; at the time, only Church of Ireland education was permitted.[12]

Due to antisemitic policies in Nazi Germany,[13] some Jewish parents turned to or were forced to use private and sometimes clandestine means to educate their children in the mid-1930s.[14]

World War II

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Monument to World War II-era underground teachers, Warsaw, Poland.

World War II saw the cultivation of underground education in Poland (Polish: Tajne szkolnictwo, or tajne komplety). Usually carried out under the aegis of the Polish Underground State, often through the Secret Teaching Organization, prepared scholars and workers for the postwar reconstruction of Poland and countered German and Soviet threats to eradicate Polish culture.[15][16][17][18][19][20][21] Secret schooling was organized in some Jewish Ghettos during the Nazi regime and the German occupation in Europe, in particular in the Warsaw Ghetto.[22][23][24][25][26]

In the 1930s and 1940s, the authoritarian nationalistic regime of Brazil took anti-immigrant measures, especially against the Japanese. Japanese and other foreign schools, languages, and printed material were restricted and a compulsory assimilation program was instituted. Japanese schools became illegal in 1938. During that period, Japanese immigrants established secret schools and a newspaper in Japanese was printed.[27]

Late 20th century-present

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See also: Education in Afghanistan § Education for female students

Underground education took place in a number of Soviet Bloc countries, such as Poland[28][29][30] and Czechoslovakia.[31][32]

During the Taliban rule in various parts of Afghanistan (late 20th, early 21st c.), secret schools operated, mostly for women and girls (ex. Golden Needle Sewing School).[33][34]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Somel, Selçuk Akşin (2001). The Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire, 1839-1908: Islamization, Autocracy, and Discipline. BRILL. p. 206. ISBN 978-90-04-11903-1.
  2. ^ Clayer, Natalie (1995). "Bektachisme et nationalisme albanais". In Popovic, Alexandre; Veinstein, Gilles (eds.). Bektachiyya: Études sur l'ordre mystique des Bektachis et les groupes relevant de Hadji Bektach. Istanbul: Isis. p. 281.
  3. ^ Rama, Shinasi A. (2019-01-12). Nation Failure, Ethnic Elites, and Balance of Power: The International Administration of Kosova. Springer. p. 95. ISBN 978-3-030-05192-1. the intellectuals organized and sought the right to teach the Albanian language, and nationalist militantism was manifested in the growing sacrifices of the Albanians of all strata that were donating, paying for the private secret schools, funding publications, and so on
  4. ^ Washington, Booker T. (1997). "Education of the Negro". In Sigler, Julius A.; Huston, Anne Marshall (eds.). Education: Ends and Means. University Press of America. pp. 264–269. ISBN 978-0-7618-0452-9.
  5. ^ Gundaker, Grey (2007). "Hidden Education among African Americans during Slavery". Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education. 109 (7): 1591–1612. doi:10.1177/016146810710900707. ISSN 0161-4681. S2CID 141163000.
  6. ^ Tapper, Ted; Palfreyman, David (2005). Understanding Mass Higher Education: Comparative Perspectives on Access. Psychology Press. p. 142. ISBN 978-0-415-35491-2.
  7. ^ Ascher, Abraham (2004). The Revolution of 1905: A Short History. Stanford University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-8047-5028-8.
  8. ^ Porter, Brian (2000-02-24). When Nationalism Began to Hate: Imagining Modern Politics in Nineteenth-Century Poland. Oxford University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-19-535127-9.
  9. ^ Miaso, Józef (1981-06-01). "Education and Social Structures in the Kingdom of Poland in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century". History of Education. 10 (2): 101–109. doi:10.1080/0046760810100202. ISSN 0046-760X.
  10. ^ Jurczyszyn, Marek (2013). "Nauczanie domowe w Królestwie Polskim na przełomie XIX i XX wieku". Pedagogika Rodziny (in Polish). 3 (1): 19–29. ISSN 2082-8411.
  11. ^ Žukauskas, K. (1972-01-08). "On the clandestine teaching in Lithuania". Psichologija. 12: 155–162. doi:10.15388/Psichol.1972.12.9273. ISSN 2345-0061.
  12. ^ Lyons, Tony (October 26, 2016). "'Inciting the lawless and profligate adventure'—the hedge schools of Ireland". History Ireland.
  13. ^ "Law Limits Jews in Public Schools". encyclopedia.ushmm.org. Retrieved 2023-05-07.
  14. ^ Silver, Jacqueline (2015). ...And yet they learned : education of Jewish children in Nazi occupied areas between 1933-1945. North Charleston, South Carolina. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-5377-9635-2. OCLC 964526064. Nazi legal decrees affecting Jewish life from 1933 onward are listed in chronological order and analyzed along with the resultant need for clandestine education for Jewish children{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  15. ^ Załęczny, Jolanta (2015). "Działalność oświatowa Polskiego Państwa Podziemnego : tajne nauczanie" (PDF). Niepodległość i Pamięć. 22/1 (49): 187–203.
  16. ^ Macias, Katarzyna (2018-06-27). Edukacja formalna i tajne nauczanie w okupowanej Polsce w okresie II wojny światowej [Formal Education and secret teaching in occupied Poland during the Second World War]. Jagiellonian University.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  17. ^ Nawrocki, Paweł M. (2009). "Tajne nauczanie - w 70-lecie powstania TON". Znak (in Polish) (652): 155–158. ISSN 0044-488X.
  18. ^ Lowe, Roy (1992). Education and the Second World War: Studies in Schooling and Social Change. Psychology Press. pp. 128–138. ISBN 978-0-7507-0054-2.
  19. ^ Chrobaczyński, Jacek (1995). "Źródła i motywy konspiracyjnego szkolnictwa 1939-1945" (PDF). Rocznik Naukowo-Dydaktyczny WSP W Krakowie. XVII (167): 69–87.
  20. ^ (in Polish) Ryszard Czekajowski, Tajna edukacja cywilna w latach wojenno-okupacyjnych Polski 1939-1945
  21. ^ Davydenko, Olena (2013). "Secret vocational education in Poland: organizational and pedagogical aspects (1939-1945)". Kwartalnik Pedagogiczny. 230 (4): 117–132. ISSN 0023-5938.
  22. ^ "Dzieci - tajne nauczanie w getcie warszawskim - Centralna Biblioteka Judaistyczna". cbj.jhi.pl. Retrieved 2023-05-06.
  23. ^ Ignatowicz, Aneta (2009). Tajna oświata i wychowanie w okupowanej Warszawie: Warszawskie Termopile 1939-1945 (in Polish). Bellona. pp. 122–.
  24. ^ Sakowska, Ruta (1965). "O szkolnictwie i tajnym nauczaniu w getcie warszawskim". Biuletyn Żydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego. 55: 57–84.
  25. ^ Kardos, Susan (2002-04-01). ""Not Bread Alone": Clandestine Schooling and Resistance in the Warsaw Ghetto during the Holocaust". Harvard Educational Review. 72 (1): 33–67. doi:10.17763/haer.72.1.37523430721261lj. ISSN 0017-8055.
  26. ^ Bauer, Yehuda (1992). Tory, Avraham; Gilbert, Martin; Michalowicz, Jerzy (eds.). "Tory, "Surviving the Holocaust: The Kovno Ghetto Diary"". The Jewish Quarterly Review. 82 (3/4): 491–495. doi:10.2307/1454872. ISSN 0021-6682. JSTOR 1454872.
  27. ^ Daniela de Carvalho, Migrants and Identity in Japan and Brazil: The Nikkeijin. Routledge, 2003. Chapter "From 1930 to 1954". Page number not available.
  28. ^ Stanowski, Krzysztof (1998-07-01). "Teaching Democracy in Postcommunist Countries". Journal of Democracy. 9 (3): 157–165. doi:10.1353/jod.1998.0052. ISSN 1086-3214. S2CID 153721770.
  29. ^ Buczynska-Garewicz, Hanna (1985-04-01). "The Flying University in Poland, 1978-1980". Harvard Educational Review. 55 (1): 20–34. doi:10.17763/haer.55.1.h4mm84t744557037. ISSN 0017-8055.
  30. ^ Rothstein, Rachel (2015). ""Am I Jewish?" and "What Does it Mean?": The Jewish Flying University and the Creation of a Polish-Jewish Counterculture in Late 1970s Warsaw". Journal of Jewish Identities. 8 (2): 85–111. doi:10.1353/jji.2015.0024. ISSN 1946-2522. S2CID 161864057.
  31. ^ Sugiyama, Anna (2013-01-01). Building Space for Philosophy: Ideas behind the Underground University in Czechoslovakia. Brill. ISBN 978-1-84888-126-6.
  32. ^ Kudláčová, Blanka; Šebová, Nikola (2020-07-03). "Illegal confessional education of children in Slovakia in the period of Socialism (political and religious context)". Paedagogica Historica. 56 (4): 481–502. doi:10.1080/00309230.2019.1589539. ISSN 0030-9230. S2CID 150750433.
  33. ^ Constable, Pamela (2006-09-30). "Afghan girls risk their lives to go to secret school". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Retrieved 2023-05-07.
  34. ^ Harding, Luke (2001-07-02). "Inside Afghanistan's secret schools". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-05-07.
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