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Guangxu Emperor

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Guangxu Emperor
光緒帝
Emperor of the Qing dynasty
Reign25 February 1875 – 14 November 1908
PredecessorTongzhi Emperor
SuccessorXuantong Emperor
RegentsEmpress Dowager Ci'an (1875–1881)
Empress Dowager Cixi (1875–1889; 1898–1908)
Born(1871-08-14)14 August 1871
(同治十年 六月 二十八日)
Prince Chun's Mansion, Beijing
Died14 November 1908(1908-11-14) (aged 37)
(光緒三十四年 十月 二十一日)
Hanyuan Temple, Yingtai Island, Zhongnan Lakes, Beijing
Burial
Chong Mausoleum, Western Qing tombs
Consort
​
​
(m. 1889)​
Names
Aisin-Gioro Zaitian (愛新覺羅·載湉)
Manchu: Dzai tiyan (ᡯᠠᡳ ᡨᡳᠶᠠᠨ)
Era dates
Guangxu (光緒): 6 February 1875 – 21 January 1909
Manchu: Badarangga doro (ᠪᠠᡩᠠᡵᠠᠩᡤᠠ ᡩᠣᡵᠣ)
Mongolian: Бадаргуулт төр (ᠪᠠᠳᠠᠷᠠᠭᠤᠯᠲᠤ ᠲᠥᠷᠥ)
Posthumous name
Emperor Tongtian Chongyun Dazhong Zhizheng Jingwen Weiwu Renxiao Ruizhi Duanjian Kuanqin Jing (同天崇運大中至正經文緯武仁孝睿智端儉寬勤景皇帝)
Manchu: Ambalinggū hūwangdi (ᠠᠮᠪᠠᠯᡳᠩᡤᡡ
ᡥᡡᠸᠠᠩᡩᡳ)
Temple name
Dezong (德宗)
Manchu: Dedzung (ᡩᡝᡯᡠᠩ)
HouseAisin-Gioro
DynastyQing
FatherYixuan, Prince Chunxian of the First Rank
MotherYehe-Nara Wanzhen
Guangxu Emperor
Traditional Chinese光緒帝
Simplified Chinese光绪帝
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinGuāngxù Dì
Wade–GilesKuang1-hsu4 Ti4
IPA[kwáŋɕŷ tî]
This article contains Manchu text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Manchu alphabet.

The Guangxu Emperor (14 August 1871 – 14 November 1908),[1] also known by his temple name Emperor Dezong of Qing, personal name Zaitian,[2] was the eleventh emperor of the Qing dynasty,[3] and the ninth Qing emperor to rule over China proper, from 1875 to 1908. His reign was largely dominated by his maternal aunt Empress Dowager Cixi, who was his regent for much of his nominal rule except in the time from 1889 to 1898. He initiated the radical Hundred Days' Reform in the summer of 1898 but was abruptly stopped when the Empress Dowager launched a coup on 21 September, after which he was held under virtual house arrest until his death one decade later.

Emperor Guangxu was the second son of Yixuan, Prince Chun (a son of the Daoguang Emperor), and his mother, Yehenara Wanzhen, was the sister of Empress Dowager Cixi. After Emperor Tongzhi's death in 1874, he was supported by the two Empress Dowagers (Ci'an and Cixi) to succeed the throne, being adopted at the age of three by Emperor Xianfeng and the two Empress Dowagers, thereby inheriting the throne. During the early years of his reign, the two dowagers jointly handled state affairs. As Ci'an died in 1881, Cixi continued to act as the sole regent. In 1889, Guangxu got married and announced his personal rule. After the failure of the Hundred Days' Reform in 1898, he was confined by Cixi in the Yingtai Pavilion of Zhongnanhai, completely losing his ruling power. In November 1908, he died of arsenic poisoning at Yingtai. He reigned for 34 years, ruled directly for nine of those years, and died at the age of 38 without leaving any descendants. He was buried in the Chongling Mausoleum of the Western Qing Tombs.

The emperor's life was turbulent and full of hardships. He was not originally the heir to the throne but was forcibly elevated after Emperor Tongzhi died without an heir. From a young age, he was forced to leave his home and enter the palace, where he was strictly controlled and disciplined by Cixi, enduring many hardships and sorrows. Even after he reached adulthood and began his personal rule, Cixi was unwilling to relinquish her control over state power, making him continue to be a puppet, unable to enjoy the majesty and power of a monarch. During his reign, the Qing dynasty became increasingly impoverished and weak. The Sino-French War, the First Sino-Japanese War, and the Boxer Rebellion followed one after another, causing the dynasty to cede territory and pay indemnities, losing sovereignty and humiliating the nation, leaving the people in misery. Seeing the country's decline, Guangxu allied with intellectuals like Kang Youwei and his disciple Liang Qichao[4] to launch the Hundred Days' Reform in 1898, attempting to save and rejuvenate the nation. However, this movement threatened the position of the privileged classes of traditional Chinese society[4] and was soon suppressed by the conservative forces led by Cixi, resulting in his confinement and loss of political power and personal freedom until his untimely death. His tragic fate is rare among emperors. Although historians do not deny the failures and limitations during his reign, he is still regarded as a relatively progressive and enlightened monarch of the dynasty. His image in historical research and literary works is also mostly positive.

Accession to the throne and upbringing

[edit]

The Guangxu Emperor was born on 14 August 1871, receiving the name Zaitian, and was the second son of Yixuan (Prince Chun), and his primary spouse Yehenara Wanzhen, a younger sister of Empress Dowager Cixi. He was the nephew of Cixi and the grandson of the Daoguang Emperor.[5]

On 12 January 1875, Zaitian's cousin, the Tongzhi Emperor, died without a son to succeed him. On that same day an imperial conference was held by the co-regents of the former emperor, the Empress Dowager Ci'an and the Empress Dowager Cixi. Breaking the imperial convention that a new emperor must always be of a generation after that of the previous emperor, candidates were considered from the generation of Tongzhi. The reason for this is that the empress dowagers wanted the candidate to take the place of the Tongzhi Emperor as the successor to the Xianfeng Emperor, whose only son had been Tongzhi.[6]

The other proposed candidates besides Zaitian were the two sons of Prince Gong, Zaicheng and Zaiying, but they were of the same age group as the Tongzhi Emperor and were seen as having been a negative influence on him, so they were distrusted. Zaitian was younger than both and was the nephew of Cixi. His father, Prince Chun, was also more liked than Prince Gong, and was known for being a scholar and a supporter of patriotic policies. These were the factors that influenced the selection of Zaitian to become emperor.[6]

A decree announced on 13 January that Zaitian had been chosen as the successor to the Xianfeng Emperor. The same decree also announced that Empress Dowagers Ci'an and Cixi would be his co-regents. He ascended to the throne at the age of four, on 25 February 1875, and adopted "Guangxu" (meaning "continuation of splendor") as his regnal name, therefore he is known as the "Guangxu Emperor". His personal name Zaitian was no longer used after that point.[5][7]

Beginning in March 1876, the Guangxu Emperor was taught by Weng Tonghe, who had also been involved in the disastrous upbringing of the Tongzhi Emperor yet somehow managed to be exonerated of all possible charges, and his education was also overseen by his father, Prince Chun. The emperor was taught calligraphy, the Chinese classics (including the Four Books), and the Chinese, Mongolian, and Manchu languages. Starting in 1881 he began reading historical works, including the decrees of earlier emperors. Guangxu could work diligently and already knew some of the classics, but he was not always interested in his daily lessons.[8] As part of the emperor's education he was taught that his main obligation as ruler was "keeping the state in order" and "maintaining universal peace," as stated in the Confucian classic Great Learning.[9]

The Guangxu Emperor seemed to become a self-disciplinarian early on. In 1876 he told Weng Tonghe that he considered frugality to be more important than the accumulation of wealth, and in another instance in 1878, he insisted on walking through snow and told his servants not to clear it out of his way. He also said that he considered the Tao to be more important than his own views.[10] But, Weng noted that the emperor sometimes had extreme mood swings and did not want to participate in their daily lessons.[11]

Weng also instilled in the Guangxu Emperor a duty of filial piety toward the Empress Dowagers Cixi and Ci'an, which, aside from being a Chinese tradition, was also because Weng owed much of his successful career to the patronage of Cixi.[12] In 1881, when the Guangxu Emperor was nine, Empress Dowager Ci'an died unexpectedly, leaving Empress Dowager Cixi as sole regent for the boy. In Weng's diaries during those days, Guangxu was reportedly seen with swollen eyes, had poor concentration and was seeking consolation from Weng. Weng too expressed his concern that Cixi was the one who had been suffering from chronic ill health, not Ci'an. During this time, the imperial eunuchs often abused their influence over the boy emperor.[13] The Guangxu Emperor had also reportedly begun to hold some audiences on his own as an act of necessity in the early 1880s, though this stopped in 1883 when Cixi recovered from her illness.[10]

Taking over the reins of power

[edit]
Guangxu in Imperial clothing

His reign saw the outbreak of the Sino-French War in 1884 over influence in Vietnam. By the time the war ended in 1885, the French destroyed the Chinese fleet at Fuzhou, patrolled the coast of southern China unobstructed, occupied part of Taiwan, and ended the status of Vietnam as a tributary of China. This prompted Britain to end the tributary status of Burma in 1886, which China did not oppose militarily, and encouraged Japan to do the same in Korea.[14][15] The negotiations with the French were carried out by the Viceroy of Zhili, Li Hongzhang, by other ministers in Beijing, and by the head of Chinese Maritime Customs, Robert Hart.[16] The Guangxu Emperor had not given an audience to foreign diplomats in Beijing up to this point, though in August 1886 his father Prince Chun hosted a dinner for the diplomatic corps. On 7 February 1887, the emperor was officially old enough to begin to rule in his own right, but the regency of Empress Dowager Cixi continued beyond that, and the foreign diplomats were not informed of either fact. The French minister requested an audience with the emperor twice, in November 1887 and in the spring of 1888, but this was denied both times.[17]

In 1886, several courtiers, including Prince Chun and Weng Tonghe, had petitioned Empress Dowager Cixi to postpone her retirement from the regency. Despite Cixi's agreement to remain as regent, that same year the Guangxu Emperor had begun to write comments on memorials to the throne. In the spring of 1887, he partook in his first field-plowing ceremony, and by the end of the year he had begun to rule under Cixi's supervision.[10] By the mid-1880s the Guangxu Emperor also developed the ideas that he wanted guide his rule, including preserving the wealth of the country and avoiding selfishness or arrogance. Among his predecessors, he considered the Qianlong Emperor to be a model of good governance, and often visited places that the Qianlong Emperor had spent a lot of time at. He felt a sense of responsibility for following the example set by the Qianlong Emperor.[18] Meanwhile, Prince Chun and the Grand Council prepared for the Guangxu Emperor to begin ruling directly by taking measures to make sure that the system that existed during the regency effectively remained intact.[19]

Eventually, in February 1889, in preparation for Cixi's retirement, the Guangxu Emperor was married. Much to the emperor's dislike, Cixi selected her niece, Jingfen, to be empress. She became known as Empress Longyu. She also selected a pair of sisters, who became Consorts Jin and Zhen, to be the emperor's concubines.

The following week, with the Guangxu Emperor married, Cixi retired from the regency on 4 March 1889.[17]

Years in power

[edit]

Early rule

[edit]
Silver coin: 1 yuan Guangxu, Hupei Province (1895–1907)

Even after the Guangxu Emperor began formal rule he found that the power structure of the Qing court still depended on Empress Dowager Cixi, and he did not know how far his own authority extended. The emperor tried to take a leading role in the government, especially after she began spending several months of the year at the Summer Palace starting from 1891, but he never became capable of skillfully managing imperial court politics.[20] The decisions that he made and the administrative process continued to be overseen by the empress dowager. Weng Tonghe reportedly observed that while the emperor attended to day-to-day state affairs, in more difficult cases the emperor and the Grand Council sought Cixi's advice. She also decided on appointments to the Grand Council and the Six Ministries.[19]

In December 1890 the emperor issued a decree stating that he wanted to have an immediate audience with the foreign diplomatic corps in Beijing and to make this an annual occurrence going forward. They presented a list of conditions for the protocol at the ceremony, and it was accepted by the Qing.[21] The audience took place on 5 March 1891, with the Guangxu Emperor receiving the foreign ministers to China at an audience in the "Pavilion of Purple Light," in what is now part of Zhongnanhai, something that had also been done by the Tongzhi Emperor in 1873. That summer, under pressure from the foreign legations and in response to revolts in the Yangtze River valley that were targeting Christian missionaries, the emperor issued an edict ordering Christians to be placed under state protection.[22][21] The audience of foreign diplomats with the Gaungxu Emperor became more frequent after that. He received the new Austro-Hungarian minister in a special audience in October 1891, the British minister in December 1892, and the German and Belgian ministers in 1893.[21]

The Guangxu Emperor followed his principle of frugality in early 1892, when he tried to implement a series of draconian measures to reduce expenditures by the Imperial Household Department, which proved to be one of his few administrative successes. This dispute over the budget continued until early 1894. But its other effects were humiliating and alienating senior Manchu officials in the bureaucracy, who remained in contact with Cixi, and reducing his potential allies at the imperial court.[23] The Guangxu Emperor inherited the system of the Qing dynasty that had emerged in 1861, at the start of the Tongzhi Emperor's reign. The source of authority were the two empresses dowager, while the young emperor had a secondary role, and the princes and ministers were responsible for actually running the machinery of the government. When Empress Dowager Cixi retired, Guangxu had control over the administration of the empire and she did not interfere with his actions, but the princes and ministers advised him to bring back the old system in 1894, at the start of the tensions with Japan.[24]

Foreign crises

[edit]
A Japanese print showing key leaders during the war, including Emperor Guangxu (left of center)

The summer of 1894 saw the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War over influence in Korea.[25] The Guangxu Emperor was reportedly eager for the war against Japan and became associated with the pro-war faction in the imperial court, which believed that China would easily win. This was in contrast to the Empress Dowager Cixi and Viceroy Li Hongzhang, who both wanted to reach a peaceful resolution. The conflict was also an opportunity for the emperor to make his own decisions instead of remaining influenced by the empress dowager.[26] After the Japanese attacked and sank a Chinese warship on 25 July without any declaration of war,[27] the ministers of the Qing emperor advised him to declare war on Japan. In that document, made on 1 August, the Guangxu Emperor accused Japan of sending armies to force the king of Korea to change his system of government and of violating international law. He also used the term "dwarfs" for the Japanese, an ancient Chinese derogatory term, reflecting the widespread contemptuous view of Japan that many Qing officials had.[28]

China suffered major defeats at the Battle of Pyongyang and the Battle of the Yalu River within two days in September 1894, largely destroying the Huai Army and the Beiyang Fleet, the Qing dynasty's best military forces.[29][30] The Guangxu Emperor was angry and wanted to immediately leave the capital to personally take command of the troops at the front, but he was later talked out of it by his advisors.[29] The emperor met with a German military advisor who had been present at the Battle of the Yalu, Constantin von Hanneken, to learn what exactly happened, suggesting that he may have not trusted his ministers to tell him the truth.[31] He also signed edicts calling for the execution of generals who were defeated.[26] During the war, even though the Guangxu Emperor was nominally the sovereign ruler of the Qing Empire, officials often ignored him and instead sent their memorials to Cixi for her approval.[32] Eventually, two sets of Grand Council memoranda were created, one for the emperor and the other for the empress dowager, a practice that continued until it was rendered unnecessary by the events in the autumn of 1898.[33]

In February 1895, as peace negotiations with the Japanese were underway, the Guangxu Emperor spoke with his top negotiator before he met with the Japanese, Li Hongzhang, and allegedly told him during their conversation that China needed large scale reforms.[34] In April, after the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed but before it was ratified by the Qing government, the treaty's severe terms for China were publicized. Government bureaucrats throughout the empire urged the imperial court to reject it and continue fighting. The emperor did not want to take responsibility for ratifying the treaty, and neither did the Empress Dowager Cixi, who may have wanted to use the defeat against Japan to undermine Guangxu. He tried to shift the responsibility in an edict by asking two officials, Liu Kunyi and Wang Wenshao, to give their opinion on whether to agree to the treaty, because they had told him that the Chinese military was capable of achieving victory. Eventually the Guangxu Emperor ratified it.[35]

The emperor and the Qing government faced further humiliation in late 1897 when the German Empire used the murders of two priests in Shandong Province as an excuse to occupy Jiaozhou Bay (including Qingdao), prompting a "scramble for concessions" by other foreign powers. Germany sent a naval squadron under command of the brother of Emperor Wilhelm II, the admiral Prince Heinrich, who was later received by the Qing monarch at the Summer Palace in May 1898.[36] Germany's example was followed by demands from Russia, Britain, France, and Japan.[37] China's relatively weak forces were not in a position to challenge them,[36] and the United States, which was opposed to European concessions, was distracted by events in Cuba and the Spanish–American War.[38][39] In the six months between November 1897 and May 1898 China had received unprecedented demands from foreign powers.[40]

After the Qing Empire's defeat to Japan and forced agreement to the terms of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, the Guangxu Emperor reportedly expressed his wish to abdicate.[33] He wrote that by giving away Taiwan to Japan, as the treaty required, he was going to lose the "unity of the people." The emperor felt that he was unworthy of his ancestors because he failed as a leader, which was made worse after he was also forced to give concessions to the European powers in 1897–98. Luke Kwong wrote that this was part of what drove the Guangxu Emperor to begin the Hundred Days' Reform in the summer of 1898, because he saw taking radical action to revitalize the Qing dynasty as the only way to make up for his perceived failure.[41] Already in December 1897 the emperor wrote an edict that asked bureaucrats with military knowledge to recommend reforms that could be made.[42]

Hundred Days' Reform

[edit]
This photograph was labelled as being of the Guangxu Emperor, though some believe this may actually be Zaifeng, Prince Chun.

Following the war and the scramble for concessions, there was growing support for reform in China among the gentry and the nobility in the spring of 1898. In April the emperor was presented with a memorial to the throne signed by young metropolitan officials and jinshi graduates that urged him to not trust his ministers and deal with the foreign powers on his own.[43] In early June 1898 the grand councilor Weng Tonghe introduced the Guangxu Emperor to the reformist official Kang Youwei, and the emperor was impressed him, especially after reading Kang's two books about the reforms in Russia by Peter the Great and in Japan by the Meiji Emperor. He personally met with Kang on 14 June, and started issuing reform decrees on 11 June.[44] The first order, the edict of 11 June 1898, declared the intent of the Qing emperor to pursue reform as response to calls from certain officials since the war with Japan, and asked every one of his subjects to contribute to strengthening China, a project that was going to be based on "Western learning" while maintaining respect for traditional morals. Guangxu also received Cixi's approval for the edict.[45]

Between June and September 1898 the emperor carried out the Hundred Days' Reform, aimed at a series of sweeping political, legal and social changes. The goal was to make China a modern constitutional empire, but still within the traditional framework, as with Japan's Meiji Restoration.[46][47] The emperor's initial focus was establishing the Imperial University in Beijing and reforming the education system. The last part of his edict of 11 June instructed the Grand Council and the Zongli Yamen, the Qing dynasty's foreign office, to establish the Imperial University right away.[48] The Guangxu Emperor then issued edicts for a massive number of far-reaching modernizing reforms with the help of more progressive officials such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao. Changes ranged from infrastructure to industry and the civil examination system. Other edicts were for the construction of the Lu-Han railway, a system of budgets similar to that of Western governments, the replacement of the Green Standard Army with a Western-style national army based on conscription, and the creation of a naval academy.[46][47] Among the lesser known measures that the Guangxu Emperor wanted to take was his naval armament program, which called for China to have a navy of 21 battleships.[48] The emperor also required court bureaucrats to read the writings of the earlier reformist official Feng Guifen and present a report on his suggestions in ten days,[49] encouraged imperial princes to study abroad,[50] and tried to streamline the government by firing 5,000 state employees.[51]

One of the early stumbling blocks for this effort happened on 15 June, when the Guangxu Emperor suddenly dismissed the grand councilor Weng Tonghe from all of his posts, even though he had been the one to draft his first reform edict. It has been debated by historians what the immediate reason for the action was, but it occurred after Weng had been a voice of caution leading up the summer of 1898, and he may have been seen by the emperor as an obstacle to his plans.[52] The emperor was also impatient and wanted immediate results, so he may have fired him in an emotional moment. On several occasions he also tried to write his edicts in a way that would intimidate other officials, which undermined his own call for unity on the project.[53] Overall, there was no coherent structure to the Hundred Days' Reform, and the Guangxu Emperor was frantically trying to begin as many changes as he could with his edicts, causing the bureaucracy to be overwhelmed by the large number of documents being written.[54]

Portrait of Emperor Guangxu. Illustration.[55][56]

Although the decrees between June and August were largely accepted and were creating the basis for reform, starting in September they began targeting the positions of the Manchu nobility and the gentry.[57] These were not only too sudden for a China still under significant neo-Confucian influence and other elements of traditional culture, but later came into conflict with Cixi, who held real power. Many officials, deemed useless and dismissed by the Guangxu Emperor, begged her for help. But the decisive response by Empress Dowager Cixi was caused by the accusation from the official Yang Chongyi that the Guangxu Emperor had committed treason by inviting the former Japanese prime minister Ito Hirobumi to advise him (Ito was in China at the time to meet with the emperor). Yang claimed that Guangxu had done this on the advice of Kang Youwei and the wanted revolutionary Sun Yat-sen. Guangxu was unable to effectively defend himself to Cixi from Yang's accusation.[58] Both sides began plotting to take action against each other.[59]

Some of the reformers around the emperor asked Yuan Shikai to use the Beiyang Army to arrest Cixi and to execute Ronglu,[60] a member of the conservative faction who had been appointed to command the military forces in Zhili earlier.[50] According to one account, this was a decree that was issued by the Guangxu Emperor. But Yuan later said that the schemers could not convince him that it was really from the emperor, and when Yuan met with him on 20 September, Guangxu did not say anything about it to Yuan. He then left the emperor to meet with Ronglu and told him about the plot by the reformers, also telling him the emperor had nothing to do with it. Ronglu then met with Cixi and other ministers and princes, and started taking action. On the 21st the Guangxu Emperor was detained and met with Empress Dowager Cixi.[61] The following day, he issued a decree that asked Cixi to take control of the government, who proceeded to remove the reform-minded officials and replaced them with conservative loyalists. An edict on 26 September undid some of the more radical changes the emperor had made, while keeping in place those reforms that did not go directly against Qing tradition.[62]

Lei Chia-sheng (雷家聖), a Taiwanese history professor, proposes an alternative view: that the Guangxu Emperor might have been led into a trap by the reformists led by Kang Youwei, who in turn was in Lei's opinion tricked by British missionary Timothy Richard and former Japanese prime minister Itō Hirobumi into agreeing to appoint Itō as one of many foreign advisors.[63] British ambassador Claude MacDonald claimed that the reformists had actually "much injured" the modernization of China.[64] Lei claims that Cixi learned of the plot and decided to put an end to it to prevent China from coming under foreign control.[65]

Under house arrest after 1898

[edit]
Claimed to be the only photograph of the emperor (1902)

The Guangxu Emperor's duties after 1898 became rather limited. The emperor was effectively removed from power as emperor (despite keeping the title), but he did retain some status.[citation needed]

The emperor was kept informed of state affairs, reading them with Cixi prior to audiences,[66] and was also present at audiences, sitting on a stool to Cixi's left hand while Cixi occupied the main throne. He discharged his ceremonial duties, such as offering sacrifices during ceremonies, but never ruled alone again.

In 1898, shortly after the collapse of the Hundred Days' Reform, the Guangxu Emperor's health began to decline, prompting Cixi to name Pujun, a son of the emperor's cousin, the reactionary Prince Duan, as heir presumptive. Pujun and his father were removed from their positions after the Boxer Rebellion. He was examined by a physician at the French Legation and diagnosed with chronic nephritis; he was also discovered to be impotent at the time.

During the Boxer Rebellion, Emperor Guangxu fiercely opposed the idea of using usurpers as a means to counter foreign invasion. His letter to then United States president Theodore Roosevelt is still preserved in U.S. government archives. On 14 August 1900, the Guangxu Emperor, along with Cixi, Empress Longyu and some other court officials, fled from Beijing as the forces of the Eight-Nation Alliance marched on the capital to relieve the legations that had been besieged during the Boxer Rebellion.

Returning to the capital on 7 January 1902,[67] after the withdrawal of the foreign powers, the Guangxu Emperor spent the next few years working in his isolated palace with watches and clocks, which had been a childhood fascination, some say in an effort to pass the time until Cixi's death. He also read widely and spent time learning English from Cixi's Western-educated lady-in-waiting, Yu Deling. His relationship with Empress Longyu, Cixi's niece (and the Emperor's own first cousin), also improved to some extent.

Death

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The Guangxu Emperor died on 14 November 1908, a day before Cixi's death, at the age of 37. For a long time, there were several theories about the emperor's death, none of which was accepted fully by historians. Most were inclined to believe that Cixi, herself very ill, poisoned the Guangxu Emperor because she was afraid he would reverse her policies after her death. China Daily quoted a historian, Dai Yi, who speculated that Cixi might have known of her imminent death and worried that the Guangxu Emperor would continue his reforms after her death.[68] Another theory is that the Guangxu Emperor was poisoned by Yuan Shikai, who knew that if the emperor were to come to power again, Yuan would likely be executed for treason.[69] There were no reliable sources to prove who murdered the Guangxu Emperor.

The medical records kept by the Guangxu Emperor's physician show the emperor suffered from "spells of violent stomachaches" and that his face had turned blue, typical symptoms of arsenic poisoning.[69] To dispel persistent rumours that the emperor had been poisoned, the Qing imperial court produced documents and doctors' records suggesting that the Guangxu Emperor died from natural causes, but these did not allay suspicion.

On 4 November 2008, forensic tests revealed that the level of arsenic in the emperor's remains was 2,000 times higher than that of ordinary people. Scientists concluded that the poison could only have been administered in a high dose at one time.[70]

The Guangxu Emperor was succeeded by Cixi's choice as heir, his nephew Puyi, who took the regnal name "Xuantong". In January 1912, the Guangxu Emperor's consort, who had become Empress Dowager Longyu, placed her seal on the abdication decree, ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China. Longyu died childless in 1913.

After the Xinhai Revolution of 1911–1912, the Chinese Republic funded the construction of the Guangxu Emperor's mausoleum in the Western Qing Tombs. The tomb was robbed during the Chinese Civil War and the underground palace (burial chamber) is now open to the public.

Appraisal

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In 1912, Sun Yat-sen praised the Guangxu Emperor for his educational reform package that allowed China to learn more about Western culture. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, historian Fan Wenlan (范文瀾) called the Guangxu Emperor "a Manchu noble who could accept Western ideas". Some historians[who?] believe that the Guangxu Emperor was the first Chinese leader to implement modernizing reforms and capitalism. Imperial power in the Qing dynasty saw its nadir under Guangxu, and he was the only Qing emperor to have been put under house arrest during his own reign.

Honours

[edit]
Styles of
Guangxu Emperor
Reference styleHis Imperial Majesty
Spoken styleYour Imperial Majesty
Alternative styleSon of Heaven (天子)

Domestic honours

  • Sovereign of the Order of the Peacock Feather
  • Sovereign of the Order of the Blue Feather
  • Sovereign of the Order of the Double Dragon

Foreign honours[citation needed]

Family

[edit]
The wedding of the Guangxu Emperor and Empress Xiaodingjing
The wedding of the Guangxu Emperor and Empress Xiaodingjing

The Guangxu Emperor had one empress and two consorts in total. The emperor was forced by Empress Dowager Cixi to marry her niece (his cousin) Jingfen, who was two years his senior. Jingfen's father, Guixiang (Cixi's younger brother), and Cixi selected her to be the Guangxu Emperor's wife in order to strengthen the power of their own family. After the marriage, Jingfen was made empress and was granted the honorific title of "Longyu" (隆裕; lit. 'auspicious and prosperous') after the death of her husband. However, the Guangxu Emperor detested his wife and spent most of his time with his favourite concubine, Consort Zhen (better known as the "Pearl Consort"). Rumours allege that in 1900, Consort Zhen was drowned by being thrown into a well on Cixi's order after she begged Empress Dowager Cixi to let the Guangxu Emperor stay in Beijing for negotiations with the foreign powers. That incident happened when the Imperial Family was preparing to leave the Forbidden City due to the occupation of Beijing by the Eight-Nation Alliance in 1900. Like his predecessor, the Tongzhi Emperor, the Guangxu Emperor died without issue. After his death in 1908, Empress Dowager Longyu ruled in cooperation with Zaifeng.

Empress

Imperial Noble Consort

Ancestry

[edit]
Jiaqing Emperor (1760–1820)
Daoguang Emperor (1782–1850)
Empress Xiaoshurui (1760–1797)
Yixuan (1840–1891)
Lingshou (1788–1824)
Imperial Noble Consort Zhuangshun (1822–1866)
Lady Weng
Guangxu Emperor (1871–1908)
Jingrui
Huizheng (1805–1853)
Lady Gūwalgiya
Wanzhen (1841–1896)
Huixian
Lady Fuca

See also

[edit]

Notes

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  1. ^ First cousin of the Guangxu Emperor.

References

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  1. ^ "Arsenic killed Chinese emperor, reports say". www.cnn.com. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  2. ^ "Qing Emperor Guangxu". www.travelchinaguide.com. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  3. ^ "Guangxu | emperor of Qing dynasty". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  4. ^ a b "Hundred Days of Reform | Chinese History & Impact on Modern China | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 1 November 2024.
  5. ^ a b Hummel, Arthur W. Sr., ed. (1943). "Tsai-t'ien" . Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. United States Government Printing Office.
  6. ^ a b Kwong 1984, pp. 41–44.
  7. ^ Morse 1918a, pp. 280–281.
  8. ^ Kwong 1984, pp. 44–45.
  9. ^ Kwong 1984, p. 53.
  10. ^ a b c Kwong 1984, p. 54.
  11. ^ Kwong 1984, p. 46.
  12. ^ Kwong 1984, pp. 49–53.
  13. ^ Kwong 1984, pp. 47–48.
  14. ^ Eastman, Lloyd E. (1968). "Political Reformism in China Before the Sino-Japanese War". The Journal of Asian Studies. 27 (4): 695. JSTOR 10.2307/2051574.
  15. ^ Elleman 2001, pp. 82–83.
  16. ^ Morse 1918a, pp. 366–367.
  17. ^ a b Morse 1918a, p. 413.
  18. ^ Kwong 1984, p. 55.
  19. ^ a b Kwong 1984, pp. 26–27.
  20. ^ Kwong 1984, pp. 55–57.
  21. ^ a b c Morse 1918a, p. 414.
  22. ^ Seagrave 1992, p. 291.
  23. ^ Kwong 1984, pp. 56–57.
  24. ^ Kwong 2000, pp. 673–674.
  25. ^ Paine 2003, pp. 136–137.
  26. ^ a b Paine 2003, pp. 126–129.
  27. ^ Paine 2003, p. 132.
  28. ^ Paine 2003, p. 137.
  29. ^ a b Paine 2003, p. 216.
  30. ^ McCord 1993, p. 33.
  31. ^ Paine 2003, pp. 187–188.
  32. ^ Kwong 1984, p. 27.
  33. ^ a b Seagrave 1992, p. 186.
  34. ^ Paine 2003, pp. 258–259.
  35. ^ Paine 2003, pp. 273–277.
  36. ^ a b Morse 1918b, pp. 108–111.
  37. ^ Morse 1918b, pp. 112–124.
  38. ^ Morse 1918b, pp. 125–126.
  39. ^ Morse 1918b, p. 108.
  40. ^ Morse 1918b, p. 127.
  41. ^ Kwong 1984, p. 58.
  42. ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 63.
  43. ^ Morse 1918b, pp. 132–133.
  44. ^ Morse 1918b, pp. 134–135.
  45. ^ Kwong 1984, pp. 157–158.
  46. ^ a b Morse 1918b, pp. 135–139.
  47. ^ a b Elleman 2001, pp. 118–119.
  48. ^ a b Kwong 2000, p. 668.
  49. ^ Kwong 2000, p. 669.
  50. ^ a b Morse 1918b, p. 135.
  51. ^ Kwong 2000, p. 674.
  52. ^ Kwong 1984, pp. 159–160.
  53. ^ Kwong 2000, p. 670.
  54. ^ Kwong 2000, p. 672.
  55. ^ "Guangxu Emperor 光緒帝 China 19th Century illustration". Historum. 11 September 2020.
  56. ^ Baranov, Alexey Mikhailovich (1905–1910). Materials on Manchuria, Mongolia, China and Japan. Harbin: Publishing house of the headquarters of the Zaamur district of the border service.
  57. ^ Morse 1918b, p. 140.
  58. ^ Kwong 2000, pp. 674–675.
  59. ^ Morse 1918b, pp. 141–142.
  60. ^ Morse 1918b, pp. 142–146.
  61. ^ Morse 1918b, pp. 142–145.
  62. ^ Morse 1918b, pp. 146–149.
  63. ^ Richard, Timothy, Forty-five Years in China: Reminiscences publ. Frederick A. Stokes (1916)
  64. ^ Correspondence Respecting the Affairs of China, Presented to Both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty (London, 1899.3), No. 401, p. 303.
  65. ^ Lei Chia-sheng雷家聖, Liwan kuanglan: Wuxu zhengbian xintan 力挽狂瀾：戊戌政變新探 [Containing the furious waves: a new view of the 1898 coup], Taipei: Wanjuan lou 萬卷樓, 2004.
  66. ^ Derling, Princess Two Years in the Forbidden City, (New York: Moffat Yard & Company, pp. 69–70 (New York: Moffat Yard & Company, 1911), accessed June 25, 2013 http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/DerYear.html
  67. ^ Rhoads 2000, p. 73.
  68. ^ "Arsenic killed Chinese emperor, reports say". CNN. 4 November 2008. Archived from the original on 8 August 2012. Retrieved 9 October 2011.
  69. ^ a b Mu, Eric. Reformist Emperor Guangxu was Poisoned, Study Confirms" Archived 2015-05-09 at the Wayback Machine. Danwei. 3 November 2008. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
  70. ^ "Arsenic killed Chinese emperor, reports say". CNN. 4 November 2008. Retrieved 10 June 2022.
  71. ^ "Liste des Membres de l'Ordre de Léopold", Almanach Royale Belgique (in French), Bruxelles, 1899, p. 72 – via hathitrust.org{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  72. ^ "Schwarzer Adler-orden", Königlich Preussische Ordensliste (in German), Berlin, 1895, p. 5 – via hathitrust.org{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  73. ^ 刑部芳則 (2017). 明治時代の勲章外交儀礼 (PDF) (in Japanese). 明治聖徳記念学会紀要. p. 149.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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  • Hudson, James J. "A Game of Thrones in China: The Case of Cixi, Empress Dowager of the Qing Dynasty (1835–1908)." in Queenship and the Women of Westeros (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2020) pp. 3–27. [ISBN missing]
  • Rawski, Evelyn S. The last emperors: A social history of Qing imperial institutions (Univ of California Press, 1998). [ISBN missing]
[edit]
Guangxu Emperor
House of Aisin Gioro
Born: 14 August 1871 Died: 14 November 1908
Regnal titles
Preceded by Emperor of China
Emperor of the Qing dynasty
1875–1908 		Succeeded by
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