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Human rights in Ukraine

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Human rights in Ukraine concern the fundamental rights of every person in Ukraine. Between 2017 and 2022, Freedom House has given Ukraine ratings from 60 to 62 on its 100-point scale, and a "partly free" overall rating. Ratings on electoral processes have generally been good, but there are problems with corruption and due process. Its rating later declined in 2023 due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, which led to the enactment of martial law in Ukraine, as well as a labor code that removed many legal protection for employees and small and medium-sized companies, as well as a law that that increased the government's power to regulate media companies and journalism. Since the beginning of the invasion Russia has engaged in various war crimes against Ukrainian civilians and the invasion has had a major humanitarian impact on Ukraine and its citizens.[1]

Both the 2015 local elections and the 2019 presidential elections were generally peaceful, competitive and fair, although there are indications of misuse of state resources and vote-buying, and media pluralism has not yet been fully achieved.[2][3][4] Attacks on journalists, civil society activists and members of minority groups are frequent, and police responses inadequate.[5]

As of 2021 investigations into crimes against journalists and human rights activists often do not result in convictions, and impunity for torture is still widespread.[6] Gender-based and homophobic violence by groups advocating discrimination are also a cause for concern,[6] as well as linguistic rights of national minorities.[7] War crimes committed by both sides of the war in Donbas are not prosecuted, and in Russian-occupied Crimea dissent is repressed.[6]

Background

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Prior to 1991

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As part of the Soviet Union, all human rights were severely limited. The Soviet Union was a one-party state until 1990[8] and a totalitarian state from 1927 until 1953[9][10][11][12] where members of the Communist Party held all key positions in the institutions of the state and other organizations. Freedom of speech was suppressed and dissent was punished. Independent political activities were not tolerated, whether these involved participation in free labor unions, private corporations, independent churches or opposition political parties. The freedom of movement within and especially outside the country was limited.

1991–2014

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In 1991 Ukraine declared independence. The referendum on the Act of Declaration of Independence was held in Ukraine on 1 December 1991.[13] An overwhelming majority of 92.3% of voters approved the declaration of independence made by the Verkhovna Rada on 24 August 1991. Until 8 June 1995, Ukraine's supreme law was the Constitution (Fundamental Law) of the Ukrainian SSR (adopted in 1978, with numerous later amendments). On 8 June 1995, President Leonid Kuchma and Speaker Oleksandr Moroz (acting on behalf of the parliament) signed the Constitutional Agreement for the period until a new constitution could be drafted.

The first constitution since independence was adopted during an overnight parliamentary session after almost 24 hours of debate of 27–28 June 1996, unofficially known as "the constitutional night of 1996". The Law No. 254/96-BP ratifying the constitution, nullifying previous constitutions. The Agreement was ceremonially signed and promulgated in mid-July 1996. According to a ruling of the Constitutional Court of Ukraine, the constitution took force at the moment when the results of the parliamentary vote were announced on 28 June 1996 at approx. 9 a.m. Kyiv Time and for the first time enshrined the obligations of human rights into law.

Ukraine was labelled as "free" by Freedom House in 2009.[14] In their report they stated, "Ukraine has one of the most vibrant civil societies in the region. Citizens are increasingly taking issues into their own hands, protesting against unwanted construction, and exposing corruption. There were no limits seen on NGO activities. Trade unions function, but strikes and worker protests were infrequently observed, even though dissatisfaction with the state of economic affairs was pervasive in the fall of 2008. Factory owners were seen as still able to pressure their workers to vote according to the owners' preferences."[14]

On 20 October 2009 experts from the Council of Europe stated, "in the last five years the experts from the Council of Europe who monitor Ukraine have expressed practically no concerns regarding the important [process of the] formation of a civil society in Ukraine. Ukraine is one of the democratic states in Europe that is securing human rights as a national policy, as well as securing the rights of national minorities."[15] According to Human Rights Watch (HRW), "while civil society institutions operate mostly without government interference, police abuse and violations of the rights of vulnerable groups … continue to mar Ukraine's human rights record."[16]

After the early 2010 election of President Viktor Yanukovych international organizations started to voice their concern. According to Freedom House, "Ukraine under President Yanukovych has become less democratic and, if current trends are left unchecked, may head down a path toward autocracy and kleptocracy."[17] Among the recent negative developments, they mentioned, "a more restrictive environment for the media, selective prosecution of opposition figures, worrisome intrusiveness by the Security Service of Ukraine, widely criticized local elections in October 2010 … and erosion of basic freedoms of assembly and speech." This led Freedom House to downgrade Ukraine from "Free" to "Partly Free" in Freedom in the World 2011.[17] Also in 2011 Amnesty International spoke of "an increase in the number of allegations of torture and ill-treatment in police custody, restrictions on the freedom of speech and assembly, as well as mass manifestations of xenophobia".[18]

In Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index 2010 Ukraine had fallen from 89th place to 131.[19] Neighboring Russia's press freedom was ranked at position 140.[20] The International Federation for Human Rights called Ukraine "one of the countries seeing the most serious violations against human rights activists" in December 2011.[21]

As of late 2013 the situation continued to deteriorate and was one of the causes of the Euromaidan revolution, as joining or even working towards meeting the requirement to join the European Union would dramatically improve human rights across Ukraine. Russia, which had already laid the ground work reacted to the Euromaidan protests and invaded Crimea and the wider Donbas regions.

International and European human rights treaties

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Ukraine is a party to the following international treaties

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Ukraine signed but not yet ratified

Ukraine is a party to the following European treaties

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Situation

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Meeting in Kharkiv during the 2004 Orange Revolution

As of 17 January 2013 Ukraine had lost all of its 211 cases at the European Court of Human Rights.[22]

Mass graves found in areas liberated from Russian control

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Main article: War crimes in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine § Ill-treatment, torture and willful killing of civilians

After Bucha, Lyman, Makariv, and Kherson were liberated from Russian occupation, Ukraine discovered mass graves containing bodies of civilians. Victims frequently bore evidence of torture.[23][24][25][26][27]

Electoral rights

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International observers, including Freedom House and the United States Department of State, generally consider Ukrainian election processes to be free and fair. However, there were credible allegations of vote-buying, and media coverage was at times biased. Nazi and Communist parties are banned.[28]

The right to receive a fair trial

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Main article: Judiciary of Ukraine

Amendments to the constitution, which came into force, were detrimental to the right to receive a fair trial because they re-introduced the so-called general supervision by the prosecutor's office. Other serious problems included lengthy periods for review of cases because the courts were overloaded; infringement of equality of arms; non-observance of the presumption of innocence; the failure to execute court rulings; and high level of corruption in courts.[29] Independent lawyers and human rights activists have complained Ukrainian judges regularly come under pressure to hand down a certain verdict.[30]

According to Freedom House, the judiciary has become more efficient and less corrupt since the Orange Revolution.[14]

Recent (since 2010) trials of high-profile political figures[nb 1] Yulia Tymoshenko, Yuriy Lutsenko, Igor Didenko,[32] Anatoliy Makarenko[33] and Valeriy Ivaschenko[34] have been described by the European Commission, the United States and other international organizations as "unfair, untransparent and not independent"[35] and "selective prosecution of political opponents".[36][37][38]

Language rights

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Main article: Language policy in Ukraine

Multiple languages have always been spoken in what is now Ukraine.[39] In the 19th century the Russians and Jews were the main ethnic groups in the urban areas while the countryside was mostly Ukrainian.[40][41] Ukraine has a history of linguistic conflict dating back to at least the 19th century. In 1863, Russian Minister of Internal Affairs Pyotr Valuev issued a circular that banned the publication of religious texts and educational texts written in the Ukrainian language.[42]

The Soviet policy towards the Ukrainian language varied from the promotion of it under Lenin ("indigenization") to the persecution of the pro-Ukrainian language movement under Stalin, and tolerance of it which was coupled with the gradual decline of the use of the Ukrainian language and the creeping russification of Ukraine under Khrushchev and Brezhnev.[43] Following Ukraine's declaration of independence in 1991, the previous pro-Russian policies were reversed and the use of the Ukrainian language was actively encouraged and in certain areas, it was made compulsory. The 1996 Constitution stated that Ukrainian is the state language, and it also stated that the free use and development of Russian and other national minority languages is also permitted.

Subsequent legislation made the use of Ukrainian mandatory in various areas of public life.[7][44][45] Exceptions were made for languages that are considered "indigenous" because the speakers of them lack a kin-state, such as the Crimean Tatar language and the Karaim language, as well as those languages that are the official languages of the European Union.[46] However, significant minority languages in Ukraine, such as Russian, Belarusian and Jewish, are neither official EU languages nor indigenous,[46] and concerns have been raised about their protection.[7][47] For example, print and online publications in languages that do not meet these criteria are prohibited unless they also have a Ukrainian translation,[7][44] and secondary schooling in these languages is prohibited.[44][46][47] The differential treatment of minority languages has been criticized on human rights and discrimination grounds by the Venice Commission, Human Rights Watch and the United Nations Human Rights Office.[7][46][48]

Russia exaggerated the real language issues, using them to create a false justification for the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. False claims included claims that Ukraine has been committing genocide, and claims that Ukrainians have been shooting people who speak Russian.[49][50] In areas it controlled, Russia required that all classes be in Russian[51][52] and allegedly tortured a teacher for teaching in Ukrainian.[53]

Media freedom and freedom of information

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See also: Freedom of the press in Ukraine

In 2007, in Ukraine's provinces numerous, anonymous attacks[54] and threats persisted against journalists, who investigated or exposed corruption or other government misdeeds.[55][56] The US-based Committee to Protect Journalists concluded in 2007 that these attacks, and police reluctance in some cases to pursue the perpetrators, were "helping to foster an atmosphere of impunity against independent journalists".[16][57]

Ukraine's ranking in Reporters Without Borders's Press Freedom Index has in the latest years been around the 90th spot (89 in 2009,[58] 87 in 2008[59]), while it occupied the 112th spot in 2002[60] and even the 132nd spot in 2004.[61]

During the Russia-backed 2010-2014 Presidency of Viktor Yanukovych was elected President of Ukraine, journalistic watchdogs complained about a deterioration of press freedom in Ukraine.[62][63][64][65] Anonymous journalists said early May 2010 that they were voluntarily tailoring their coverage so as not to offend the Yanukovych administration and the Yanukovych Government.[66] The Yanukovych Government said it did not censor the media,[67] so did the Presidential Administration[68] and President Yanukovych himself.[69][70]

A May 2014 report from the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) said that there were approximately 300 violent attacks on the media in Ukraine since November 2013.[71] A crackdown on what authorities describe as "pro-separatist" points of view have triggered dismay among Western human rights monitors. For example, the 11 September 2014 shutdown of Vesti [Wikidata] newspaper by the Ukrainian Security Service for "violating Ukraine's territorial integrity" brought swift condemnation from the Committee to Protect Journalists and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.[72][nb 2]

Ukraine has also shut down several television stations operated by Russia on the grounds that they spread Russian propaganda.[72] In February 2017 the Ukrainian government banned the commercial importation of books from Russia, which had accounted for up to 60% of all titles sold.[74]

According to Amnesty International, in 2021 the media were generally pluralistic and free, but some outlets were discriminated against by officials because of their perceived pro-Russian leaning.[75] Criticisms have been levelled at the decision to deprive Taras Kozak's TV channels of broadcasting licences.[75] The investigation into the murder of the journalist Pavlo Sheremet in 2016 were undermined by serious deficiencies and lack of credibility.[75]

Freedom of expression and conscience

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Main articles: Freedom of speech and Freedom of thought
FEMEN is a feminist protest group founded in Ukraine in 2008.[76] The organization became internationally known for organizing[77][78] topless protests against sex tourism,[77][79] religious institutions,[80] sexism and homophobia.[81]

Torture and conditions in detention

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Further information: War crimes in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine § Ill-treatment, torture and willful killing of civilians; Humanitarian situation during the war in Donbas § Abductions and torture; Russian torture chambers in Ukraine; and Secret detention centers of SBU

Reports of torture and ill-treatment by police persisted during 2007, as did unduly long periods of pretrial custody. Of major concern were the inhumane conditions in detention with overcrowded cells, appalling sanitary conditions and the lack of appropriate medical care. During the year numerous group suicide attempts took place in some penal colonies.[29][82]

In Eastern Ukraine, the SBU conducted torture and human rights abuses for alleged pro-Russian separatists, according to 2016 reports.[83][84][85] Some of this torture took place in secret prisons with unacknowledged detention.[86] The existence of black sites was denounced by multiple reports of the UN monitoring mission in Ukraine,[87] Amnesty International[88] and Human Rights Watch.[89]

On 25 May 2016, the United Nations Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture (SPT) suspended its visit to Ukraine after the government denied it access to places in several parts of the country where it suspects these secret jails were located.[83][90] In 2018 Amnesty International concluded that, "The investigation into the Security Service of Ukraine (SBU) for its alleged secret prisons failed to make any progress. Law enforcement officials continued to use torture and other ill-treatment."[91]

According to Amnesty International, in 2021 abuse of prisoners remained "endemic".[75] As reported by the Prosecutor General's Office, in March 2022 the European Court of Human Rights had ruled against Ukraine in 115 cases .[75] The European Court found that Oleksandr Rafalsky had spent 15 years in prison despite good reasons to believe that his "confessions" had been extorted by torture.[92]

During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine numerous acts of torture of civilians and numerous acts of torture of prisoners of war by Russian forces have been documented,[93][94][95][96] including rape and sexual violence against men, women, and children by Russian forces.[97][98]

Human rights abuses and the HIV/AIDS epidemic

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Main article: HIV/AIDS in Ukraine

The Ukrainian government has taken a number of positive steps to fight HIV/AIDS, chiefly in the area of legislative and policy reform. But these important commitments are being undermined in the criminal justice and health systems by widespread human rights abuses against drug users, sex workers, and people living with HIV/AIDS.[16]

Human trafficking

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Main articles: Human trafficking in Ukraine and Human trafficking

There has been a growing awareness of human trafficking as a human rights issue in Europe. The end of communism has contributed to an increase in human trafficking, with the majority of victims being women forced into prostitution.[99][100] In 2013 Ukraine was a country of origin and country of transit for persons, primarily women and children, trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation and forced labor.[101] Charcoal production and pornography have been listed in the U.S. Department of Labor's List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor under the country of Ukraine in December 2014. The Government of Ukraine has shown some commitment to combatting trafficking but has been criticized for not fully complying with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking, and for inadequate trafficking prevention efforts.[102]

Violence against women

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Main article: Violence against women in Ukraine

Violence against women is an entrenched social problem in Ukrainian culture engendered by traditional male and female stereotypes.[103][104] It was not recognized during the Soviet era, but in recent decades the issue became an important topic of discussion in Ukrainian society and among academic scholars. According to the estimation of OSCE the violence towards women is widespread in Ukraine and it is associated with three times more deaths than the ongoing armed conflict in the eastern provinces of the country.[105]

War in Donbas

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Main article: Humanitarian situation during the war in Donbas

During the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War, Ukraine has lost control of Crimea and parts of the Donbas. On 21 May 2015, the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine has passed a resolution declaring that it has withdrawn from some of the obligations stipulated in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (articles 2, 9, 12, 14, 17), the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (articles 5, 6, 8, 13) and European Social Charter (articles 1 p. 2, 4 p. 2-3, 8 p. 1, 14 p. 1, 15,16,17 p. 1a p. 1c, 23,30, 31 p. 1-2) at the Donbas region until "Russia cease its aggression in eastern Ukraine".[106][107]

Ukrainian human rights organizations

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International human rights organizations with branches in Ukraine

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See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Cases were opened against:
    1) Prime Minister – Tymoshenko.
    2) Minister of Police – Lutsenko.
    3) Minister of Defence – Ivashchenko.
    4) Minister of Finance – Danylyshyn.
    5) Minister of Natural Resources – Filipchuk.
    6) Deputy Minister of Justice – Korneichuk.
    7) Head of Customs of Ukraine – Makarenko.
    8) Head of the regional customs – Shepitko.
    9–10) Head of the State Treasury of Ukraine – Slyuz; Deputy head – Gritsoun.
    11) Deputy head of "Naftogaz" (state monopoly on trade in gas and oil) – Didenko.
    12) Governor of Dnipropetrovsk region (former Minister of Transport) – Bondar.
    Repeatedly called in for questioning in order to open a criminal case : minister and former mayor of Lviv – Kuybida; First Deputy Prime Minister – Turchynov.[31]
  2. ^ Former Vesti News's editor-in-chief Igor Guzhva wrote on his Facebook page that the news outlet had been raided by Security Service of Ukraine (SBU). The SBU reportedly took all servers, kept staffers in a "hot corridor" and shut down the website completely. Guzhva said that the purpose of the raid was "to block our work". "Journalists are not being let into their office", Guzhva wrote. "Those who were already inside at the moment of the raid are being kept in the building and are not allowed to use cell phones." Guzhva said that this is the second time in just six months that the SBU has tried to "intimidate" its editors. He added that he is unsure of the reason for the raid, but suspects that it might have to do with a story the website recently published on the SBU chief's daughter.[73]

References

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  1. ^ "Ukraine: Freedom in the World 2023 Country Report". Freedom House. Retrieved 3 December 2023.
  2. ^ "Ukraine elections comply with democratic standards: OSCE". Deutsche Welle. 26 October 2015. Retrieved 27 November 2015.
  3. ^ "Ukraine local elections generally respected democratic process, but additional efforts needed to enhance public confidence, international observers say". OSCE. 26 October 2015. Retrieved 27 November 2015.
  4. ^ UKRAINE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION, 31 March and 21 April 2019, ODIHR Election Observation Mission Final Report (PDF) (Report). ODIHR. 20 November 2019.
  5. ^ "Ukraine". Freedom House. Retrieved 13 December 2022.
  6. ^ a b c "Ukraine 2021". Amnesty International. Retrieved 13 December 2022.
  7. ^ a b c d e "New Language Requirement Raises Concerns in Ukraine". Human Rights Watch. 19 January 2022. Retrieved 29 March 2022.
  8. ^ "Закон СССР от 14 марта 1990 г. N 1360-I "Об учреждении поста Президента СССР и внесении изменений и дополнений в Конституцию (Основной Закон) СССР"". 10 October 2017. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
  9. ^ "totalitarianism | Definition, Examples, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 3 January 2021.
  10. ^ Rutland, Peter (1993). The Politics of Economic Stagnation in the Soviet Union: The Role of Local Party Organs in Economic Management. Cambridge University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-521-39241-9. "after 1953 ...This was still an oppressive regime, but not a totalitarian one."
  11. ^ Krupnik, Igor (1995). "4. Soviet Cultural and Ethnic Policies Towards Jews: A Legacy Reassessed". In Ro'i, Yaacov (ed.). Jews and Jewish Life in Russia and the Soviet Union. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-714-64619-0. "The era of 'social engineering' in the Soviet Union ended with the death of Stalin in 1953 or soon after; and that was the close of the totalitarian regime itself."
  12. ^ von Beyme, Klaus (2014). On Political Culture, Cultural Policy, Art and Politics. Springer. p. 65. ISBN 978-3-319-01559-0. "The Soviet Union after the death of Stalin moved from totalitarianism to authoritarian rule."
  13. ^ Dieter Nohlen & Philip Stöver (2010) Elections in Europe: A data handbook, page 1976 ISBN 9783832956097
  14. ^ a b c "Freedom in the World 2018". freedomhouse.org. Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 10 October 2018.
  15. ^ "Experts of Council of Europe have no remarks to Ukraine concerning rights and freedom of citizens". Kyiv Post. 20 October 2009. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
  16. ^ a b c "Ukraine: Events of 2006". Human Rights Watch. 2007. Archived from the original on 16 January 2007.
  17. ^ a b Kramer, David J.; Nurick, Robert; Wilson, Damon; Alterman, Evan (April 2011). "Sounding the Alarm: Protecting Democracy in Ukraine, 2010" (PDF). Freedom House. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 May 2011.
  18. ^ "Radio Liberty: Amnesty International notes worsening of human rights situation in Ukraine". Kyiv Post. 13 May 2011. Retrieved 3 October 2015.
  19. ^ "Press Freedom Index 2010". Reporters Without Borders. 20 October 2010. Archived from the original on 24 November 2010. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
  20. ^ "Ukraine's Press Freedom Index rating falls steeply". Kharkiv Human Rights Protection Group. 10 October 2010. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
  21. ^ "Report: Ukraine among states with worst human rights records". Kyiv Post. 14 December 2011. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
  22. ^ Україна програла 11 мільйонів за день [Ukraine lost 11 million in a day]. Ukrayinska Pravda (in Ukrainian). 17 January 2013. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
  23. ^ McDonnell, Patrick J.; Kaleem, Jaweed (4 April 2022). "Calls grow for more sanctions on Russia after mass graves found around Kyiv". LA Times.
  24. ^ "Police: More than 900 civilian bodies found in Kyiv region". AP News. 16 April 2022. Retrieved 16 April 2022.
  25. ^ Maloletka, Evgeniy (16 September 2022). "Ukraine's president says a new mass grave is found near a recaptured city". NPR. Archived from the original on 16 September 2022. Retrieved 16 September 2022.
  26. ^ Harding, Luke (16 September 2022). "Ukraine says victims from Izium mass grave show signs of torture". The Guardian. Kyiv. Archived from the original on 16 September 2022. Retrieved 16 September 2022.
  27. ^ Chris Livesay (19 November 2022). ""Torture chamber," mass grave found in Kherson, Ukraine after Russia's retreat". CBS News. Retrieved 14 December 2022.
  28. ^ "2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Ukraine". United States Department of State. Retrieved 13 December 2022.
  29. ^ a b "International Helsinki Federation Annual Report on Human Rights Violations (2007): Ukraine" (PDF). ihf-hr.org. refworld.org. 27 March 2007. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
  30. ^ Richard Balmforth (9 April 2012). "Insight: In Ukraine, scales of justice often imbalanced". Reuters. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
  31. ^ Jailhouse Watch: Many former top officials remain in jail for months, Kyiv Post (11 March 2011)
  32. ^ Christian Neef (30 December 2010). "A Stockholm Conspiracy: The Underbelly of Ukrainian Gas Dealings". Der Spiegel. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
  33. ^ "Court extends Makarenko's arrest until October 10". Kyiv Post. 14 September 2011. Archived from the original on 22 October 2010.
  34. ^ Will Fitzgibbon (24 September 2011). "Ex-minister Ivashchenko's son: 'This is about revenge'". Kyiv Post. Archived from the original on 2 September 2011.
  35. ^ "EU statement:'We are disappointed' with Lutsenko verdict". Kyiv Post. 27 February 2012. Archived from the original on 28 February 2012.
  36. ^ "Q&A: Ukraine's Yulia Tymoshenko on trial". BBC News. 11 October 2011. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
  37. ^ "Amnesty International: Jailed former Ukraine prime minister must be released". Kyiv Post. 11 October 2011. Archived from the original on 28 December 2011.
  38. ^ "Parliament again votes down proposal to decriminalize 'Tymoshenko article'". Kyiv Post. Interfax-Ukraine. 8 February 2012. Archived from the original on 8 February 2012.
  39. ^ Magocsi, Paul R. (2010). A history of Ukraine : the land and its peoples. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-4426-4085-6. OCLC 463766328.
  40. ^ The settlement of New Russia is discussed in Kappeler, Andreas (2014). "The Late Tsarist Multiethnic Empire between Modernization and Tradition". The Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History. Routledge. ISBN 9781317568094.
  41. ^ Dnieper Ukraine is discussed by Magocsi, Paul Robert (2010). A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples, Second Edition. University of Toronto Press. p. 353. ISBN 9781442698796.
  42. ^ Miller, Alexei (203). The Ukrainian Question. The Russian Empire and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century. Budapest-New York: Central European University Press. ISBN 963-9241-60-1.
  43. ^ Grenoble, Lenore A. (2003). Language Policy in the Soviet Union. Language Policy. Vol. 3. New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London, Moscow: Kluwer Academic Publishers. doi:10.1007/0-306-48083-2. ISBN 0-306-48083-2. S2CID 127542313.
  44. ^ a b c Sukhov, Oleg (25 April 2019). "Parliament passes Ukrainian language bill". Kyiv Post.
  45. ^ Wesolowsky, Tony (24 September 2017). "Ukrainian Language Bill Facing Barrage Of Criticism From Minorities, Foreign Capitals". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 5 December 2022.
  46. ^ a b c d European Commission for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission), Ukraine - Opinion on the Law on Supporting the Functioning of the Ukrainian Language as the State Language, adopted by the Venice Commission at its 121st Plenary Session (Venice, 6–7 December 2019), pages 10-11, 16. CDL-AD(2019)032.
  47. ^ a b "Criticism of Ukraine's language law justified: rights body". Reuters.com. 8 December 2017.
  48. ^ Report on the human rights situation in Ukraine 16 February to 15 May 2019 (Report). OHCHR. 1 June 2019. para. 81.
  49. ^ Ciara O'Rourke (22 March 2022). "No evidence to support claims that Ukraine is killing people for speaking Russian". Politifact. Retrieved 14 December 2022.
  50. ^ Afanasiev, Ievgen; Mann, Brian; Selyukh, Alina; Nadworny, Elissa (2 June 2022). "Ukraine agonizes over Russian culture and language in its social fabric". NPR. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
  51. ^ "Rights Group: Ukrainian Language Near Banished In Donbas Schools". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 15 September 2019. Retrieved 27 December 2022.
  52. ^ Coynash, Halya (17 September 2019). "Russian-controlled Donbas 'republics' remove Ukrainian language and everything connected with Ukraine from schools". Kharkiv Human Rights Protection Group. Retrieved 27 December 2022.
  53. ^ Zhanna Bezpiatchuk and Sofia Bettiza (1 October 2022). "Ukraine war: Tortured for refusing to teach in Russian". BBC. Retrieved 14 December 2022.
  54. ^ "Local newspaper editor badly injured in assault". Reporters Without Borders. 31 March 2010. Archived from the original on 1 October 2015. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
  55. ^ "Disturbing deterioration in press freedom situation since new president took over". Reporters Without Borders. 15 April 2010. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
  56. ^ Media crackdown under way?, Kyiv Post (22 April 2010)
  57. ^ Ukraine: Events of 2008. Human Rights Watch. 13 January 2009. Retrieved 3 October 2015.
  58. ^ "Press Freedom Index 2009". Reporters Without Borders. 2009. Archived from the original on 30 September 2015. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
  59. ^ "Press Freedom Index 2008". Reporters Without Borders. 2008. Archived from the original on 7 October 2015. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
  60. ^ "Press Freedom Index 2002". Reporters Without Borders. 2002. Archived from the original on 7 October 2015. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
  61. ^ "Press Freedom Index 2004". Reporters Without Borders. 2004. Archived from the original on 20 February 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
  62. ^ "1+1 TV journalists claim censorship of news reports". Kyiv Post. 6 May 2010. Archived from the original on 14 November 2010.
  63. ^ "STB TV channel journalists claim imposing of censorship on STB". Kyiv Post. 8 May 2010. Archived from the original on 11 May 2010.
  64. ^ "European journalists call on Ukrainian authorities, media owners to respect press freedom". Kyiv Post. Interfax-Ukraine. 11 May 2010. Archived from the original on 11 November 2010.
  65. ^ Anthony Mills (11 August 2010). "International Press Institute: Ukraine's press freedom environment has deteriorated 'significantly'". Kyiv Post. Archived from the original on 23 November 2010.
  66. ^ Journalists, in defensive crouch, swing news coverage to Yanukovych's favor, Kyiv Post (6 May 2009)
  67. ^ Semynozhenko: No examples of censorship on Ukrainian TV channels, Kyiv Post (13 May 2009)
  68. ^ Opposition benefiting from topic of censorship at mass media, says Hanna Herman, Kyiv Post (13 May 2009)
  69. ^ (in Ukrainian) Янукович: Україна готова, якщо Європа готова, BBC Ukrainian (10 May 2010)
  70. ^ Special committee calls to check reports of pressure on journalists, Kyiv Post (13 May 2009)
  71. ^ Michael Shields (23 May 2014). "Ukraine media freedom under attack: OSCE". Reuters. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
  72. ^ a b Fred Weir (21 September 2014). "Crackdown in Ukraine sullies its democratic aspirations". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
  73. ^ Catherine Taibi (9 November 2014). "Ukraine Security Services Break Into Newspaper Office, Shut Down Website". HuffPost. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
  74. ^ Kean, Danuta (14 February 2017). "Ukraine publishers speak out against ban on Russian books". The Guardian. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
  75. ^ a b c d e "UKRAINE 2021". Amnesty International. Retrieved 10 December 2022.
  76. ^ Zoe Holman (19 October 2013). "Fearless ... and topless: Femen activists to bring 'sextremism' to the UK". The Guardian. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
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