Brazilian mythology

Map showing the locations of indigenous language groups in Brazil. The map highlights the geographic distribution of major language families such as Tupi-Guarani and Macro-Jê.

Brazilian mythology is a rich and diverse part of Brazilian folklore with cultural elements, comprising folk tales, traditions, characters, and beliefs. The category is representative of Brazil’s greater culture, being a melting pot of Iberic traditions brought by the Portuguese settlers, African traditions brought by Africans during the colonial slave trade, and the traditions and stories of indigenous groups that have occupied Brazil for centuries.

Because Brazil is a melting pot of cultures, many elements of Brazilian mythology are shared by the traditions of other countries, especially its South American neighbors and Portugal. There is no singular mythological doctrine in Brazil, but instead a patchwork collection of stories and teachings from different cultural groups that each contribute unique stories, teachings, and figures to the overall mythology of Brazil.

The mythology of Brazil, especially that of the local indigenous groups, has largely been kept alive through oral tradition and theater-like storytelling. Because of the historic reliance upon oral tradition, a lack of written records, and great differences in the geographies of different native groups, myths and stories with the same roots developed wide variation in different regions. While this leads to some ambiguity and confusion among scholars about “original” versions, there are similarities and common themes like reverence for nature, ethical teachings, and origin stories. The similarities act like a common thread connecting each region as a singular culture.

Regional Indigenous Mythologies

Brazilian mythology is the combination of many regional cultural traditions, primarily the traditions of the indigenous groups that have inhabited the region for thousands of years. The two most prominent of these groups are the Tupi-speaking people and the Ge-speaking people. The Tupi, who traditionally lived in the coastal and Amazon regions, and the Ge, who have long occupied the central and eastern regions of the country, share many common themes and a reverence for nature but vary in detail as a result of geographic differences.

Tupi Mythology

Tupi was one of the largest language systems of pre-Columbian Brazil. The language dispersed through the indigenous tribes of the Amazonian region to the eastern coast of Brazil. Teachings and traditions from the Tupi language usually emphasize the importance of nature, and beliefs typically revolve around the idea that every element of nature has a spirit. Myths from the Tupi aim to teach moral lessons and explain natural phenomena. The myths tend to be very animistic, personifying animals, forests, rivers, and celestial bodies. This is reflective of the geography of the Brazilian highlands where the Tupi historically resided, as their stories and origin myths reference the rich biodiversity and environment of the Amazon rainforest. These myths also tend to tell of the results of an interaction between a human and a spiritual being, with consequences for humans that disrespect nature spirits.

Ge

The Ge languages, also referred to as Jê and Macro-Jê, is one of the primary language families of pre-Columbian Brazil. Ge-speaking peoples primarily inhabit the central and eastern regions of Brazil, where the savannahs and flatlands of their native lands deeply influence their mythology. Unlike the Tupi, whose myths often center on animals and their personification, Ge traditions emphasize cosmic and agricultural themes. These themes reflect the Ge people's reliance on seasonal changes and successful harvests. Their stories often revolve around celestial entities with some stories even showing the spirits of celestial bodies coming down to Earth. This highlights the Ge community’s close connection to the rhythms of nature and the heavens.

Common Themes and Well-known Stories

Brazilian mythology, a blend of indigenous, African, and European influences, reflects recurring themes that connect the myths of various regions and peoples. Nature, transformation, duality, and morality are central elements, shaping a diverse yet cohesive tradition. These themes are woven into notable stories that have been passed down for generations, offering both entertainment and moral guidance.

Nature and Guardians of the Environment

Curupira statue portrayed with the usual backwards facing feet at Jardim Botânico Plantarum in Nova Odessa, Brazil.

Nature plays a pivotal role in Brazilian mythology, revered as both a sacred and mystical force. Many myths personify elements of the natural world, creating guardians who protect the land and its creatures. For instance, Curupira, a forest spirit with backward feet, punishes those who exploit nature irresponsibly, while Boitatá, a fiery serpent, safeguards the forest from harm. Myths like these emphasize the sacred bond between humans and nature, promoting respect and sustainable coexistence. The Amazon rainforest, rivers, and wildlife are not just backdrops but active participants in these stories, reflecting their cultural and ecological significance.

Transformation and Metamorphosis

An artist's rendition of the fearsome Brazilian Boitatá.

A recurring theme in Brazilian mythology is transformation, where humans, animals, and spirits frequently shift forms. This idea underscores the interconnectedness of life and the fluidity of identity. Stories like that of Iara, a human who becomes a water spirit, or Boitatá, a human soul transformed into a fiery serpent, highlight the mystical relationship between humanity and the natural world. These tales often carry moral lessons, warning against pride, greed, or disrespect for the environment, while celebrating the transformative power of the spirit.

Duality and Moral Ambiguity

Brazilian myths frequently explore the duality of good and evil, often portraying mythical figures as complex and morally ambiguous. For example, Curupira can be both a protector of the forest and a punisher of those who disrespect it, depending on human actions. Similarly, Iara is both a benevolent and dangerous figure, embodying the alluring yet perilous nature of water. This duality reflects a worldview where morality is situational, and balance is key to maintaining harmony. Many myths serve as cautionary tales, guiding listeners to make ethical choices and respect the delicate equilibrium of the natural and spiritual worlds.

Notable Stories and Their Legacy

Some of the most enduring stories in Brazilian mythology include creation myths, tales of trickster figures, and accounts of cosmic events. For example, the Twin Myth describes the creation of humanity by divine siblings, often symbolizing balance and conflict. The Sun and Moon story explores the eternal dance of opposites, reflecting the importance of duality in the universe. Other myths, such as the Life Tree and Flood Myths, echo themes found in global mythology while maintaining uniquely Brazilian elements, such as the integration of rainforest flora and fauna. These stories not only entertain but also preserve cultural identity, influencing modern Brazilian art, literature, and festivals.

By combining universal themes with regional specificity, Brazilian mythology serves as a rich repository of spiritual, ecological, and moral wisdom. These myths continue to resonate in contemporary Brazil, shaping its cultural identity and fostering a connection to the natural and spiritual worlds.

Cultural Impact

Festa Junina celebration in Periperi, Salvador, Bahia, featuring traditional decorations, music, and dance. These festivals, held in honor of St. John, are a vibrant part of Brazilian culture.

Brazilian mythology has greatly influenced the country’s cultural identity, shaping its art, literature, and traditional celebrations. Myths from indigenous groups, such as the Tupi and Ge peoples, and Afro-Brazilian religions like Candomblé and Umbanda, are key parts of Brazil’s folklore. These stories appear in popular works like those of Monteiro Lobato, whose children’s books feature mythical figures such as Curupira and Iara. Celebrations like Festa Junina and Yemanjá Day showcase the blending of indigenous, African, and Christian traditions, reflecting the lasting influence of these myths in Brazilian culture.

These myths continue to influence modern media and environmental conservation efforts, demonstrating their ongoing relevance. Brazilian literature and art reflect an approach that reimagines these myths to form a cohesive cultural identity, bridging the country's rich historical traditions with the 21st century. Brazilian films, TV shows, and comics reinterpret mythological stories for new audiences, while figures like Curupira and Boitatá have become enduring symbols of environmental awareness and protection. Indigenous storytelling is preserved and shared through oral history projects and school programs, ensuring these traditions remain vibrant. By connecting the past with the present, Brazilian mythology continues to shape the nation’s values and inspire its people.

Prominent figures

• Alemoa – the ghost of a blond (German-like) woman that is connected to the island of Fernando de Noronha. She is said to seduce imprudent men and carry them to death. Alemoa is a nonstandard way of pronouncing "alemã" ("German female" in Portuguese).
• Anhangá – A spirit that often protects animals (especially the females and young ones) and tends to appear as a white deer with red eyes. Often mistaken for Anhanguera due to the words being similar, however, the Anhinga is not considered a devil, though it was feared. One legend involves an indigenous person who tortured a young fawn so the screams would attract the mother. When she came near, he killed her just to realize that the Anhanga had used an illusion and he had just killed his own mother!
• Anhanguera – Name used by the early Jesuit missionaires as an equivalent of the Devil.
• Bernunça – a strange beast of the folk tales of the state of Santa Catarina.
• Besta-fera – a centaur-like creature, thought to be the Devil. The name can be roughly translated as "Feral Beast".
• Boi-Bumbá is also called Bumba Meu Boi (described below).
• Boitatá – a giant snake with bull horns and enormous fiery eyes that crawls over the open fields at night. Sometimes described as a giant fiery snake. Looking at its eyes blinds people.
• Boiuna ("The Black Snake") – a gigantic, nocturnal serpent that is the personification of the Amazonian rivers and is feared by many anglers who live in that area. As part of the TV show, The River is a sacred area and no one is to enter.
• Boto – an Amazon river dolphin encantado that shapeshifts into a handsome man to seduce young women (Amazon). After impregnating them, he would abandon the woman and never return to her village with the same disguise again. This tale was possibly created by single mothers in an attempt to explain away to fatherless children who their fathers were.
• Bumba-meu-Boi – an ox that is part of a folk tale celebrated with dance and music by the peoples of the Brazilian north (states of Maranhão and Amazonas, where it is known as Boi-Bumbá).
• Cabeça Satânica – The wandering head is a widespread Brazilian ghost story of European origin. Appears to people that wander alone in the night as a stranger with its back turned to the victim. Its body melts to the ground and only the head with long hair, wide eyes, and a large mischievous smile remains, hopping or rolling towards the victim. Its name means "Satanic Head" or "Satan's Head".
• Caipora – jungle spirits that lived in trees but came out at night to haunt those who were astray.
• Capelobo – A hybrid weird creature that has the head of a anteater, the torso of a man, and the hindquarters of a goat, This creature brutally attacks and kills his victims, sucking their brains.
• Ci – Tupian primeval goddess (the name means simply "mother").
• Cobra-Grande ("The Big-Snake") – see Boiuna.
• Corpo-Seco ("The Dried-Corpse") – a man so evil that the earth would not rot its flesh and the devil would return his soul. He was condemned to wander fruitlessly the world until the judgment day.
• Cuca – menacing, supernatural, old hag that attacks and tortures small children who do not go to bed early. Her name comes from a very old and obsolete Portuguese word for "skull" or "cruel".
• Curupira – a (male) jungle genie/ Demon of the Forest that protects the animals and the trees of the forests. It has red hair with the capacity to ignite and turn into fire and backward feet to confuse hunters. Hates hunters and lumberjacks. It was the first figure in the history of folklore to be documented in Brazil.
• Encantado ("The Charmed") – someone who is magically trapped in another dimension, living an eternal, but hapless life (usually a punishment for pursuing riches at any cost or doing some wrong).
• Homem do Saco (literally, "Sack Man" or "Bag Man") – a mid-aged or elder drifter who visits households in search of naughty young children for him to carry away with him, in his sack or bag. When the Bag Man happens to knock at a house whose residents have a naughty kid that they no longer want, these parents give the Bag Man their kid, which he puts up in his sack and carries away forever. This story was told to children as a way to make them behave and respect their parents, under the fear of being given away to the Bag Man if they didn't act well.
• Iara – a type of freshwater mermaid (Central-West, Southeast, North).
• Iemanjá – the Afro-Brazilian sea goddess worshiped in umbanda, candomblé and another Afro-Brazilian religions.
• Jaci / Jasy – Tupi-Guarani goddess of the moon, capable of turning people into stars or mermaids.
• Jurupari – a god limited to worship by men, considered a devil by the Jesuits.
• Lobisomem – the Brazilian version of the werewolf.
• M'Boi – Serpentine god of the river. Responsible for the legend of Iguazu Falls, the tragic story of Tarobá and Naipi, a man who fell in love with a woman consecrated to M'Boi. Iguazu Falls are one of the great wonders of the world at the corner of Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay.
• Maní – the name of an indigenous girl with a very fair complexion. The legend is connected to Manioc, a woody shrub of the Euphorbiaceae native to South America.
• Mãe-do-Ouro – a powerful and lethal being that protects gold ores. Nobody has survived seeing it, so no description exists. It is usually seen from afar as a globe of fire that flies from mountain to mountain (Southeast). It can be roughly translated as "Mother of Gold" and it is possibly a popular attempt to explain the ball lightning phenomenon.
• Mapinguari – a bipedal, hairy, one-eyed giant that wanders the Amazon jungle. Considered the Brazilian version of the Yeti or the last memory of the now extinct giant sloths passed through generations by the native peoples of Brazil.
• Matinta Pereira – a malevolent hag with supernatural powers whose legend is very well known in the state of Pará.
• Moura Encantada ("Enchanted Moura") – a beautiful moura shapeshifted into a hideous snake to guard an immense treasure. One who breaks the spell will have the gold and marry the maiden.
• Muiraquitã – a greenish amulet of supernatural qualities connected to the legend of the Icamiabas, the Brazilian Amazons.
• Mula sem Cabeça (literally "Headless Mule") – shape taken by the woman accursed for having sex with a priest (Southeast, Northeast, Central-West, South).
• Mulher de Branco – "Lady in White", also "Woman in White": the most widespread type of ghost seen in Brazil. Urban legend equivalent of the Mexican La Llorona.
• Negrinho do Pastoreio – a slave boy that died an awful death (similar to Candyman's) for not keeping his owner's horses. He helps people who are looking for lost things. Roughly translated as "Black Boy of Farm" or "The Little Black Farmer".
• Pisadeira ("The Stomper") – An old witch who steps on people's bellies at night, leaving them breathless. It usually appears when people go to bed on a full stomach, and is associated with sleep paralysis.
• Romãozinho – an evil boy who bears the burden of immortality, cursed by his own dying mother.
• Saci Pererê – a mischievous single-legged black elf-like creature who is blamed as the culprit of anything that goes wrong at a farm (Central-West, Southeast). The Saci is known as a trickster and usually appears in farms inside wind swirls. If someone steals its red cap he'll exchange it for a favor.
• Uaica
• Vitória Régia – tells the story of the origin of the vitória-régia, the giant water lily, in which a Tupi-Guarani young woman named Naiá falls into a lake and drowns after trying to kiss the reflection of the moon-goddess Jaci, which often turns beautiful virgin girls into stars to be her companions. Moved by the incident, the Moon then transforms her into a different kind of star, a giant water lily, also known as the "Star of the Waters."

Further reading

• Alcoforado, Doralice Fernandes Xavier. "O conto mítico de Apuleio no imaginário baiano". In: ELO N. 13/14 (2007–2008): 9-20. ISSN 0873-0547. http://hdl.handle.net/10400.1/1685 (in Portuguese).
• Nascimento, Bráulio do. Catálogo do Conto Popular Brasileiro. Rio de Janeiro: UNESCO / IBECC / Tempo Brasileiro, 2005. 236 pp.

See also

• West African mythology
• Luís da Câmara Cascudo, Brazilian folklorist
• Guarani mythology, the native Guarani peoples live in Paraguay and parts of the surrounding areas of Argentina, Brazil, and Bolivia.