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History of Christianity in Mizoram

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The memorial to the first Mizo martyr, Phullen
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Christianity in India
Christianity in India
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Denominations

Saint Thomas Christian denominations

Syro-Malabar Catholic, Syro-Malankara Catholic, Latin Catholic

Malankara Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church

Independent Oriential Orthodox

Malabar Independent Syrian Church

Chaldean Syrian

Mar Thoma Syrian, St. Thomas Evangelical

Protestant denominations
Andhra Evangelical Lutheran, Assemblies Jehovah Shammah, Christian Revival Church, Church of North India, Church of South India, Garo Baptist, Indian Brethren, Indian Pentecostal Church of God, Church of God (Full Gospel), North Bank Baptist Christian, Northern Evangelical Lutheran, Methodist Church, Presbyterian, The Pentecostal Mission, Seventh-day Adventist, United Evangelical Lutheran

Organisations

The history of Christianity in Mizoram covers the origin and development of all forms of Christianity in Mizoram since the British occupation at the end of the 19th century until Indian Independance. Christianity arrived due to British intervention in tribal warfare, raids of British plantations. The ensuing punitive British military expedition was called the Lushai Expedition of 1871. The subsequent annexation of the erstwhile Lushai Hills to the British Empire opened the gateway for British Christian missions to evangelise the Mizo people.[1][2][3]

By the 1890s, the British Empire occupied all of Lushai Hills. The natives were still under the influence of several tribal chiefdoms, practising Sakhua (Luahai Animism) and lacking a writing system. There was an urgent need to introduce formal education. The solution came in the form of Christian missionaries. The pioneers were James Herbert Lorrain (He was given a Mizo name as Pu Buanga) and F.W Savidge (He was given the name Sap Upa), sent by the Arthington Aborigines Mission in London, who entered Lushai Hills in 1894, the year venerated in Mizoram as the "advent of the Gospel".[4] The Arthington mission was of Baptist persuasion and the first two missionaries were of the Baptist Church, the first church in Mizoram was a Baptist Church. It was established at Sethlun, Lunglei, which is still a venerated establishment by the Mizo populous. Even the recorded first Christian conversion was that of the chieftain of Durtlang, Aizawl, by the name of M.Suaka. Other denominations soon arrived, including Catholic, Salvation Army, United Pentecostal Church, Seventh-day Adventists and others.

Half a century later, the Mizos, by and large, were converted. A variety of indigenous denominations also emerged. The new religion was immensely effective at overturning the traditional culture. Christianity turned into a new culture and ethnic identity.[5][6] Attempts of revival of Mizo culture in the 1960s were objected by the Church. However, in the 1970's, the Church, upon seeing the loss of Mizo culture, began to revive several traditions such as Chapchar Kut. While Krismas is the biggest festival in Mizoram, Chapchar Kut is the second biggest due to these efforts.[7]

By the end of the 20th century, Mizoram became one of the most Christian-populated states in percentage behind Nagaland. The legacy of Christianity has led to the third highest literacy rate as of the 2011 census in India. Demographically, the native population is predominantly Christian.[8][9]

Prelude

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Alexandrapur incident and British military expeditions

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Before the mid-19th century, Mizos were virtually unknown. The British Empire, which had occupied all the surrounding Chittagong and Burma, had little to no interaction with the tribes or their lands. The Mizos then lived in small and isolated clusters of tribal chiefdoms, often raising warfare against each other. Their religious views were dominated by the primal religion of Sakhua, which was influenced by animism. This was accompanied by a unique concept of an afterlife called Pialral. They practised elaborate rituals, including animal sacrifice, and functioned on priests known as Puithiam and medicine men known as Bawlpu.[10][5] The British officers used to subsequently describe these practices as of "irreclaimable savages".[11]

Around 1850, the Mizos started to encroach on the British plantations in the neighbouring Cachar. The raid was most severe in 1871 when a series of attacks resulted in several deaths on both sides, with extensive damage on the plantations. A number of workers and soldiers were taken prisoner, and among them a six-year-old Mary Winchester. Mary Winchester was taken hostage by Bengkhuaia warriors, while other prisoners were executed on the way. To retaliate, the British military organised a punitive expedition named the Lushai Expedition in 1871–1872 in the northern region. General Bourchier led the expedition and, after encountering overwhelming resistance and unfamiliar terrain, rescued Mary Winchester and the other British hostages. Mizo chiefs of the offending tribes made a truce not to make further encroachments. However, the terms of the truce were broken in 1888-1889. In 1889 British military was forced on a second expedition. The Chin-Lushai Expedition of 1889–90 oversaw the subjugation of all the major chiefdoms throughout Mizoram (then called Lushai Hills). The British permanently fortified in major villages such as Aijal (now Aizawl) and Lungleh (now Lunglei). The land came under military occupation and subjected to the British rule.[3][12][13][14]

Missionary reconnaissance

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Christian Missionaries began to visit the Lushai Hills administration as early as 1891. A young Welsh Presbyterian missionary Rev. William Williams who was working in Khasi Hills happened to meet Mizo prisoners at Sylhet prison in February 1891. Learning their stories, he acquired an initiative to work within the Lushai Hills. With three friends he made an investigative trip in March 1891 to Aizawl. After four weeks, he returned to Khasi Hills to start a mission. While the Welsh Mission approved the extension of the mission in Lushai Hills in 1892, he unfortunately died of typhoid on 21 April 1892.[15][16][17][18] On closer scrutiny of Williams activities during his visit, the date of his arrival, 15 March, is declared as the true "Missionary Day" by Mizoram Presbyterian Church in its 89th General Assembly in 2012.[19][20][21]

Patronage of Robert Arthington

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Main article: Robert Arthington

Robert Arthington, a British philanthropist and Christian patron, taking an interest in the missions among the Lushai tribes, began funding a mission with the help of the BMS or Baptist Mission Society. This led to the establishment of the Arthington Aborigines Mission in 1889 for the evangelisation of tribal people in northeast India. For Mizos he chose J.H. Lorrain and F.W. Savidge of the London Southgate Road Baptist Church.[22][23]

Arthington Aborigines Mission

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The arrival of Christianity and formal education in Mizoram is due to Robert Arthington's efforts in the Arthington Aborigines Mission. Lorrain reached India on 1 January 1890. But not knowing further steps to take he stayed in Chittagong (now in Bangladesh) for almost two years. Then Savidge arrived in calcutta in November 1891. The two met at an evangelical campaign at Brahmanbaria (now in Bangladesh) organised by the New Zealand Baptists. They planned to start camping in Tripura, but were bluntly objected by the ruler, Maharaja. Dejected they travelled northward into deeper Chittagong. After a long wait for permission from the government to enter Lushai Hills, they were only allowed to stay at Kasalong village, the nearest possible location. This was due to constant insurgency from the Mizo tribes. After several months of starvation and dysentery, they moved to Darjeeling and finally to Silchar. They waited for one whole year in 1893 for fresh permission. While at Silchar, they frequently met Mizo travellers, from whom they started learning their language. Finally, a permit was issued, and they immediately set off on Tlawng River in a canoe on Boxing Day of 1893. They arrived in Aizawl on 11 January 1894. The day is now observed as a public holiday as "Missionary Day" in the state.[4][24][25]

Difficulties were affecting the missionaries from the first day of stepping in Aizawl. There was no local Kukis to carry their luggage boxes to Aizawl which meant the missionaries had to carry their own provisions and sleep on it. Sustenance was difficult to come by and growing their own vegetables was difficult due to flooding, insects and wild goats. Lushai tribesmen also failed to understand the teetotalism of the missionaries. Many staff of colonial institutions, from education to medicine and engineers, often contributed to the spread of Christianity in their personal efforts beyond the roles they were entitled under. British engineers installed musical organs in Welsh churches, government officials contributed and published missionary literature, and missionaries moonlighted themselves as school inspectors, among others.[26]

They made camp at Thingpui Huan Tlang ("Tea Garden"), MacDonald Hill, Zarkawt. They immediately worked on creating Mizo alphabets based on the Roman script. After only two and half months, Savidge started the first school on 1 April 1894. Their first and only pupils were Suaka and Thangphunga.[27] They translated and published the Gospels of Luke and John, and Acts of the Apostles. They also prepared A Grammar and Dictionary of the Lushai language (Dulien Dialect), which was published in 1898 and became the foundation of Mizo language.[28] The Arthington Mission mandated the missionaries to move to new tribes after two-three years and had no intention of establishing churches. Lorrain and Savidge's efforts over five years only led to the baptism of two converts, which eventually convinced Robert Arthington to demand to move to new tribes. Lorrain and Savidge departed from Aizawl for England on 31 December 1897.[1][29]

The first church

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Calvinistic Methodist Church (now properly the Presbyterian Church of Wales) took over the Lushai Hills as its mission field and sent their first missionary Revd. D. E. Jones, who arrived in Aizawl on 31 August 1897, shortly before the Arthington Mission's brief departure.[26] This marked the introduction of the Presbyterian Church in Mizoram. Lorrain and Savidge, the pioneer Baptist missionaries, offered him hospitality at Thingpui Huan and provided him with the necessary preparation for his works.

Jones struggled with the first few conversions initially. His second and fourth converts were expelled shortly after being received into communion. Jones' sixth and seventh converts left the church in 1904 and 1905. The 1901 census recorded 45 Christians in a population of 82,000. The progress of early missionaries was insignificant, with a slow, successful rate of conversion.[30]

On his birthday on 15 February 1898, Jones opened a school at his bungalow, which was soon used as a place of congregation such as worship and Sunday schools.[31] This organised congregation in 1898 is considered as the origin of church in Mizoram, and the establishment of Mission Veng Kohhran. An entirely separate church building was constructed only in 1913, at a place called Hriangmual bawlhmun (the current location of Mission Veng Church), which was an ancient altar of Sakhua worship.[32] In August 1897, the Welsh Mission had arranged a Khasi Christian, Rai Bahadur and his family from Khasi Hills, to help Jones, therefore the first enlisted congregation consisted of 6 Khasis in addition to Jones and his wife.[33]

First baptism

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Two young men named Khuma and Khara became the first fully converted Christians among the Mizos. Khuma had been tutored under Lorrain and Savidge but initially showed no sign of apparent interest in the religion. But in 1898, he became more and more interested, and with his friend Khara, they were baptised by Jones on 25 July 1899. However, the first individuals to be baptised in Lushai Hills were two Khasis, who received baptism in earlier mid-July. Khara was however not fully devoted and soon reverted to the old faith after getting into government service.[34][33][35]

Continuing developments of missionaries

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In the colonial environment, missionaries had a reputation for soft power and privilege, which may be extended by entering into the faith. Kuki labourers levied by the British as coolies carrying supplies would claim Christian faith to not work on the sabbath day. Mizo individuals would also profess conversion to Christianity to marry Christian Mizos in the course of traditional nula-rim courtship. Lal Khamliana and other locals in the 1890s learnt writing from the missionaries without signing up as Church attendees, further showing how selective commitments allowed Mizo individuals to claim preferential treatment and opportunities.[26]

Religious conversion however were hampered with the difficulties of translation. The Mizo language was limited in theology and conceptualizations which was expressed in the gospel. Lorraine referred to this initially as "almost a hopeless task." While Mizo communities increasingly listened and participated in recitation of the gospel, they often failed to retain the knowledge imparted or understand the concept being espoused.[26]

Missionaries also struggled with backsliding. This was due to the monotheistic view of the exclusive Christian faith instead of the hybridization of the traditional Mizo religion. By 1900, missionaries changed their doctrine from propagation of knowledge to exclusive conduct of action in correct conduct with the faith. This was achieved with stricter measures of keeping the Sabbath Day, abstaining from rice beer, and feeding ramhuai or evil spirits as appeasement in traditional Mizo belief.[26]

First church building

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Although the first congregational worship started in Aizawl, northern Mizoram, the first independent church building was established in southern Mizoram, at a small village called Sethlun, near Lunglei. It was constructed in 1902.[36]

Baptist church

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The first ever denomination to come up was the Baptist Church propagated and established by the duo Arthington Missionaries. However, with the coming of the Presbyterian missionaries and their consequent setting up on the harvested fields of the Baptist missionary duo; with endeavour and sincerity, the Welsh mission, in 1901, agreed to divide the Lushai Hills into two separate fields and gave the southern part to Baptist Missionary Society (BMS) of London. BMS had received an inheritance from the will of Robert Arthington, and with that, they could manage the mission field of southern Lushai Hills. Their missionaries, Lorrain and Savidge, of the same Arthington mission workers, arrived in Lunglei in March 1903. They were greeted by some 125 Mizo Christians from Sethlun. They settled at Serkawn, and this Lunglei-annexed village became the eventual headquarters of the Baptist Church in Mizoram.[37]

Lakher Pioneer Mission

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The BMS could not still cover the extreme southern corner of Lushai Hills. Lorrain, therefore, urged his younger brother Reginald to start a mission work among the Mara people ("Lakher" to foreigners). Reginald Arthur Lorrain and his wife Maud founded the Lakher Pioneer Mission in London in 1905. They entered Maraland (now includes southern end of Mizoram and adjoining Chin State of Burma) and settled at Serkawr (Saikao) village on 26 September 1907.[38] The Lorrains were refused financial support by missionary societies in England and were entirely financed by a fund-raising group based in Lorrain's home church at Penge. In the 1930s, additional finance came from Bruce Lorrain-Foxall's family and a church in Bridgnorth, Shropshire. With the additional fund few assistant missionaries joined the mission. By 1950 all Maras became converted.[39]

As an independent and self-supported mission, the church had no official name until 1960, when Albert Bruce Lorrain Foxall, the son-in-law of R.A. Lorrain, gave the name "Lakher Independent Evangelical Church" at a conference on 26 March. "Lakher" was replaced by "Mara" at the General Assembly in 1967. After administrative separation of India and Burma in 1947–1948, Maraland was split and the Mara church got divided accordingly. The Indian counterpart became Evangelical Church of Maraland.[40] Mara Independent Evangelical Church then faced administrative break up in 1970, to be reconciled only in 1987. The unified church became Mara Evangelical Church.[41][42]

Influence of Khasi revival

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In 1903 church statistics showed that there were 46 church members, of which 11 were Khasis. In January 1904 there was an upsurge of Christian revival among Khasis in Khasi Hills. Six Mizo delegates from Lushai Hills attended the Assembly at Mairang in 1906. They received the revival spirit, and when they returned to Aizawl, they spread the revival spirit among the Mizos. Evangelism then was at an unprecedented pace throughout Lushai Hills, with mass conversions in almost all villages.[33][35] By 1912, the figure of baptised Mizos soared to 3,999. After a year, the number almost doubled (7,423). After the revival of the 1930s, the entire Mizo community was considered Christianised, except for only a few communities.[5]


Influence of Christianity

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Education

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The first government school in the Lushai Hills was approved by the Chief Commissioner of Assam in 1897 to recruit government workers. A. Porteus, the political commissioner of the South Lushai Hills, saw literacy for the Mizo people as useful for constables, peons and the like. Education was quickly placed into the responsibility of missionaries as British administrators saw this policy as cheap and convenient for cultivating administrative goals. Mission schools were small and were started early in 1898 by Welsh missionary D.E Jones, whose students subsequently opened three more schools in 1901. Graduates of mission schools continued to open rural schools and propagate education as a result. In the South Lushai Hills, Baptist missionaries also focussed on increasing literacy and education for adults by constructing rest houses. Staying in the rest houses was free, alongside lessons and sermons. In the North Lushai Hills, Welsh missionaries tended to create Sunday schools that would teach the alphabet alongside religious education of the Bible.[26]

The opportunities presented to education also allowed for social mobility. While Mizo girls did have mission schools, it mostly consisted of handicrafts and domestic responsibilities which became unpopular for parents. Many families instead sent their sons to associate with missionaries as an opportunity to be granted employment in government jobs. The demand for schooling increased to the point that schools in Aizawl and Lunglei were turning away prospective pupils. High school and tertiary education, however, was out of state in places such as Shillong, limiting the emergence of a new elite class in Mizo society. With the emergence of literate communities, demand for reading increased, which prompted missionaries to publish and print early Mizo language biblical translations, songbooks, manuals and textbooks numbering as far as 143 different volumes.[26]

Other denominations

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  1. Salvation Army was formally established on 26 April 1917 by Kawl Khuma. Khuma was a young Christian preacher. He was inspired by a military system of organisation. When he was introduced to a Salvation Army officer Booth-Tucker at Shimla, he was soon converted. He went for formal training at Bombay. In 1917 he became the first commissioned officer in India and started his mission at Aizawl, and called it Chhandama Sipai. India Eastern became a separate command on 1 June 1991 and became a territory in 1993.[43]
  2. Catholicism arrived in 1925. In a brief visit from Chittagong, Fr. Boulay, CSC, baptised two infants on 6 December 1925 which marked the beginning of Catholicism. However, early opposition arose from Protestants, and as a result, the first Catholic church came up only in 1947. With permission from the Governor of Assam, two Canadian Holy Cross Fathers Fr. George Breen, CSC, and Bro. Gilbert, CSC, arrived in Mizoram on 15 April 1947. They established their headquarters at Kulikawn.[44]
  3. United Pentecostal Church (UPC) emerged as an offshoot of the great spiritual revival in the 1930s, which resulted in many highly spiritualised Mizos seeking a more flexible church, particularly unsatisfied with the strictly Welsh-influenced system. Led by Zakamlova, a separate congregation was organised in Aizawl, but they lacked any denominational support. After several attempts to contact international missions, they established an "Apostolic Church" in 1948 with moral support from the Apostolic Church of Pentecost in the United States. The first church was opened at Lungleng Vawkzawn village in October. However, Zakamlova knew the need to get full affiliation, so he contacted Pentecostal Assemblies of the World worker Roxie A.R. Telie Dover, who was stationed at Bhagalpur. Upon invitation, Dover visited Aizawl on 16 January 1949. Learning their enthusiasm and doctrinal inclination, Dover suggested they join the UPC. After getting government permission, Rev E.L. Scisma inaugurated UPC on 19 February 1950.[45][46]
  4. Seventh-day Adventist arrived in 1946. It was initiated by Lallianzuala Sailo, who first made contact with the Seventh-day Adventist Church at Shillong in Meghalaya in November 1946. OW Lange was the first Adventist missionary to Mizoram.[47]

Indigenous churches

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Mass conversion within half a century and frequent bursts of revivals among Mizos led to the births of numerous indigenous denominations of Christianity in Mizoram found nowhere else. With extant and existing types there are more than three dozen independent churches throughout Mizoram.[48] The reason largely being a reciprocal revival of cultural values which were strongly opposed by the founding missions. Some notable ones in terms of stronghold and popularity are:

  1. Lalpa Kohhran Thar (The Lord's New Church), but more famously known as Chana Pawl or Ziona Pawl, was founded by Chana's brother Khuangtuaha in 1942.[49][50] The extraordinary practice is polygamy of the head of the church. Chana had 30 wives. His eldest son and successor (after his death in 1997) Ziona has 39 wives and over 90 children. The church is somewhat a form of pater familias as the head is revered as supreme leader. The church itself holds a world record of the World Record Academy for being the "biggest family in the world" in 2011. They are concentrated at Baktawng village.[51][52][53]
  2. Isua Krista Kohhran (Church of Jesus Christ) was started on 23 May 1970 at Bualpui NG village.[54][55] A rival sister Isua Krista Kohhran Mizoram split out on 6 April 1977. The church is spread all over Mizoram and also in parts of Tripura, Bangladesh and Burma.[56]
  3. Kohhran Thianghlim (Holy Church) was founded by a veterinary doctor L.B. Sailo in 1984. It is headquartered at Chawlhhmun, Aizawl, with its notable Solomon's Temple.[54][55]
  4. Nunna Lalchhungkua was founded by evangelist Rorelliana on 27 September 1978.[55][57]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b Hluna, J.V. (2003). Mizoram Hmar Bial Missionary-te Chanchin. Aizawl, India: The Synod Literature & Publication Board.
  2. ^ J. Meirion Lloyd (1991). History of the Church in Mizoram: Harvest in the Hills. Synod Publication Board. pp. 17–23.
  3. ^ a b "Chapter 1. The terrifying tribesmen of the Mizo Hills". www.mizostory.org. Mizo Story. Archived from the original on 13 October 2016. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
  4. ^ a b Press Trust of India (11 January 2013). "Mizoram observes Missionary Day". in.com India. Archived from the original on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 20 January 2014.
  5. ^ a b c Lalsangkima Pachuau (2006). "Mizo "Sakhua" in Transition". Missiology. 34 (1): 41–57. doi:10.1177/009182960603400105. S2CID 133021703.
  6. ^ Farhadian, Charles E., ed. (2012). Introducing World Christianity. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 104. ISBN 9781405182485.
  7. ^ Pachuau, Joy (13 April 2015). The Camera as Witness. Cambridge. pp. 275–276. ISBN 9781107073395.
  8. ^ "Population By Religion In Mizoram (2001) Census". National Informatics Centre, Mizoram State Centre. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
  9. ^ "Demographic Profile". Mizoram Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan Mission. Archived from the original on 22 November 2018. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
  10. ^ Lalthangliana, B (2005). Culture and folklore of Mizoram. Publications Division Ministry of Information & Broadcasting. ISBN 978-81-230-2658-9.
  11. ^ Strom, Donna (1 July 1980). "Christianity and Culture Change among the Mizoram". Missiology. 8 (3): 307–317. doi:10.1177/009182968000800304. S2CID 145307476.
  12. ^ A. Thanglura (1988). Mihrang leh Sahrang. Aizawl, India: Self. pp. 81–85, 93–96.
  13. ^ Champhai (25 September 2009). "Zoluti (Mary Winchester) Chanchin – Ama Ziak" [ZOLUTI (MARY WINCHESTER) CHANCHIN - Her Autobiography] (in Mizo). Kan Lungkham Champhai. Retrieved 20 January 2014.
  14. ^ Lewin TH Col. (2007) [1912]. A Fly on the Wheel: Or, How I Helped to Govern India. UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 2656–290.
  15. ^ J. Meirion Lloyd (1991). History of the Church in Mizoram: Harvest in the Hills. Synod Publication Board. pp. 17–23.
  16. ^ "Page 2: William Williams visits the Mizo Hills". Mizo Story. Retrieved 20 January 2014.
  17. ^ PimPom (13 February 2012). "Rev. William Williams leh Mizoram a a sulhnu hmasa" [Rev. William Williams and his initial works in Mizoram] (in Mizo). mi(sual).com. Retrieved 20 September 2013.
  18. ^ ZKC (6 June 2013). "Mizoram Kristianna Lo Thlendan Tlangpui". Zo Kawtchhuah. Archived from the original on 18 February 2014. Retrieved 20 January 2014.
  19. ^ Chemtatrawta (11 December 2012). "Missionary hmasa ber thar kan nei leh ta mauh mai le..!!!" [We now have a new first missionary!] (in Mizo). misual.com. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
  20. ^ "Missionary Day" (in Mizo). Baptist Church of Mizoram. 10 January 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
  21. ^ "Synod then rawtna hnâwl a ni, Chanchin Tha Thlen ní-ah March 15, 1891 a pawm" [Separation of Synod declined, Missionary Day declared for 15 March]. Vanglaini (in Mizo). GetLocalNews. 9 December 2012. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
  22. ^ Anderson, Gerald H. (1999). Biographical Dictionary of Christian Missions. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 30. ISBN 9780802846808.
  23. ^ Thomas Ray. "Robert Arthington: The eccentric Baptist millionaire". Baptist Bible Tribune. Retrieved 20 January 2014.
  24. ^ PTI (11 January 2014). "Missionary Day observed in Mizoram". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 15 January 2014. Retrieved 14 January 2014.
  25. ^ "CHANCHIN THA THLEN NI - 2012". Mizoram Presbyterian Church Synod. Retrieved 14 January 2014.
  26. ^ a b c d e f g Jackson, Kyle (2023). The Mizo Discovery of the British Raj: Empire and Religion in Northeast India, 1890-1920. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-26734-2.
  27. ^ Suresh K. Sharma (2006). Documents on North-East India: Mizoram. Mittal Publications. pp. 63–64. ISBN 9788183240864.
  28. ^ Lorrain and Savidge 1898. The World Atlas of Language Structures Online. 1898. Retrieved 13 January 2014.
  29. ^ Rees, D. Ben, ed. (2002). Vehicles of Grace and Hope: Welsh Missionaries in India 1800-1970. William Carey Library. pp. 122–124. ISBN 9780878085057.
  30. ^ Nag, Sajal (1 April 2016). The Uprising: Colonial State, Christian Missionaries and Anti-Slavery Movement in North-East India (1908-1954). Oxford University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-19-946089-2.
  31. ^ "Page 4: David Evan Jones 'Zosaphluia'". Mizo Story. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
  32. ^ "Mission Veng Biak In Thar Hawnna (Updated)" [Inauguration of new Mission Veng Church] (in Mizo). Mizoram Presbyterian Church Synod. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
  33. ^ a b c G.R. Mawblei. "REVIVAL LEH MISSION". Mizoram Presbyterian Church Synod. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
  34. ^ ZKC (6 June 2013). "Mizoram Kristianna Lo Thlendan Tlangpui". Zo Kawtchhuah. Archived from the original on 18 February 2014. Retrieved 20 January 2014.
  35. ^ a b "Page 5: Khuma, the first Mizo to be baptised". Mizo Story. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
  36. ^ ralte_vahai. "Mizorama Kohhran(Biak In) hmasa ber ??" [The first church building in Mizoram?] (in Mizo). mi(sual).com. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
  37. ^ BMS. "Mizoram". BMS World Mission. Archived from the original on 15 January 2014. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
  38. ^ K. Robin (2008). "The Lakhers in Mizoram". In Jagadish K. Patnaik (ed.). Mirzoram, Dimensions and Perspectives: Society, Economy, and Polity. New Delhi: Concept Pub. Co. pp. 325–327. ISBN 9788180695148.
  39. ^ "Lakher Pioneer Mission". Mundus. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
  40. ^ "GENERAL BACKGROUND OF THE MARA EVANGELICAL CHURCH". Mara Evangelical Church. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
  41. ^ "Mara Evangelical Church". World Council of Churches. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
  42. ^ "A Brief History Of The Evangelical Church Of Maraland". Evangelical Church Of Maraland. Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
  43. ^ "Kawl Khuma". The Salvation Army India. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
  44. ^ A. Jeyaseelan. "CHRIST THE KING CATHEDRAL PARISH - BRIEF HISTORY". Aizawl Diocese. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
  45. ^ "MIZORAMA UPC A LO PIAN DAN" [How UPC originated in Mizoram] (in Mizo). United Pentecostal Church of Mizoram. Archived from the original on 17 February 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
  46. ^ "North Mizoram District Chanchin" [History of North Mizoram District] (in Mizo). UPC North East India North Mizoram District. Archived from the original on 3 February 2014. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
  47. ^ Mission in Mizoram (PDF). pp. 16–26. Retrieved 16 December 2018.
  48. ^ Chhana (17 March 2011). "Mizorama kohhran hrang hrangte". mi(sual).com. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
  49. ^ "Man has 39 wives, nearly 100 children". Reuters. 22 February 2011. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 19 April 2019.
  50. ^ "Mizo Man Has 39 Wives, 94 Children, 33 Grandchildren". Outlook. 20 February 2011. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
  51. ^ Ian Ord (5 July 2011). "Ziona Chana Heads Biggest Family In The World". Odd Culture. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
  52. ^ David M. Thangliana (24 November 2006). "Cult culture: man with 50 wives - Largest joint family on earth thrives on self-sufficient economy". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 19 June 2012. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
  53. ^ "Biggest family: Ziona Chana has 39 wifes and 94 children: a world record (Video)". World Record Academy. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
  54. ^ a b "Zoram tualto kohhran leh a din kum thenkhatte". 23 August 2010. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
  55. ^ a b c Jenny. "Zoram tualto kohhran leh a din kum thenkhatte". Lawrkhawm. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
  56. ^ "ISUA KRISTA KOHHRAN". Isua Krista Kohhran. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
  57. ^ Donald (24 July 2012). "Hnam Sakhua bihchianna". mi(sual).com. Retrieved 22 January 2014.

Further reading

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