List of African-American arts firsts

African Americans are a demographic minority in the United States. The first achievements by African Americans in various fields historically marked footholds, often leading to more widespread cultural change. The shorthand phrase for this is "breaking the color barrier".^[1]^[2]

This is a list of African-American firsts in the fine arts, popular arts, and literature. It is a wider listing than that of the major national firsts at List of African-American firsts.

18th century

1746

First known African-American (and slave) to compose a work of literature: Lucy Terry with her poem "Bars Fight", composed in 1746^[3] and first published in 1855 in Josiah Holland's "History of Western Massachusetts^[4]^[3]

1760

First known African-American published author: Jupiter Hammon (poem "An Evening Thought: Salvation by Christ with Penitential Cries", published as a broadside)^[5]

1773

First known African-American woman to publish a book: Phillis Wheatley (Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral)^[6]

19th century

1825

First African-American actor to play Othello on an English and then continental stages - First African-American star - best paid actor : Ira Aldridge

1827

First African-American owned-and-operated newspaper: Freedom's Journal, founded in New York City by Rev. Peter Williams Jr. and other free blacks.

1858

First published play by an African American: The Escape; or, A Leap for Freedom by William Wells Brown^[7]

1890

First African American to record a best-selling phonograph record: George Washington Johnson, "The Laughing Song" and "The Whistling Coon."^[8]
First woman and African American to earn a military pension for their own military service: Ann Bradford Stokes.^[9]

1892

First African American to sing at Carnegie Hall: Matilda Sissieretta Joyner Jones^[10]

20th century

1903

First Broadway musical written by African Americans, and the first to star African Americans: In Dahomey

1910

First African-American woman millionaire: Madam C. J. Walker^[11]
First African-American female to be recorded commercially: Daisy Tapley^[12] (Recording source- Library of Congress)

1927

First African American to star in an international motion picture: Josephine Baker in La Sirène des tropiques.^[13]

1931

First African-American composer to have their symphony performed by a leading orchestra: William Grant Still, Symphony No. 1, by Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra^[14]

1935

First known interracial jazz group: Benny Goodman Trio (Benny Goodman, Teddy Wilson, Gene Krupa)^[15]

1936

First African American to conduct a major U.S. orchestra: William Grant Still (Los Angeles Philharmonic)^[16]

1939

First African American to star in their own television program: Ethel Waters, The Ethel Waters Show, on NBC^[17]

1940

First African American to win an Oscar: Hattie McDaniel (Best Supporting Actress, Gone with the Wind, 1939)^[18]

1941

First African American to give a White House Command Performance: Josh White^[19]

1943

First African-American artists to have a number-one hit on the Billboard charts: Mills Brothers ("Paper Doll"), topped "Best Sellers in Stores" chart on November 6 (See also: Tommy Edwards, 1958; The Platters, 1959)

1944

First known African-American comic book artist: Matt Baker in Jumbo Comics #69 for Fiction House^[20]

1945

First African-American member of the New York City Opera: Todd Duncan

1947

First African-American artist to receive sole credit for a #1 hit on the Billboard charts: Count Basie ("Open the Door, Richard"), topped "Best Sellers in Stores" chart on February 22 (See also: Mills Brothers, 1943; Nat King Cole, 1950; Tommy Edwards, 1958; The Platters, 1959)^{[citation needed]}
First comic book produced entirely by African-Americans: All-Negro Comics^[21]

1948

First African-American man to receive an Oscar: James Baskett (Honorary Academy Award for his portrayal of "Uncle Remus" in Song of the South, 1946)^[22] (See also: Sidney Poitier, 1964)
First African-American composer to have an opera performed by a major U.S. company: William Grant Still (Troubled Island, New York City Opera)^[23]
First known African-American star of a regularly scheduled network television series: Bob Howard, The Bob Howard Show^[17]^[24]^[25]^{[Note 1]} (See also: 1956)
First African American to star in a network television sitcom: Amanda Randolph, The Laytons^[17]^[26]

1949

First African-American-owned and -operated radio station: WERD, established October 3, 1949 in Atlanta, Georgia by Jesse B. Blayton Sr.^[27]

1950

First African American to win a Tony Award: Juanita Hall (Best Featured Actress in a Musical, South Pacific)^[28]
First African American to win a Pulitzer Prize: Gwendolyn Brooks (Book of poetry, Annie Allen, 1949)^[29]
First African-American solo singer to have a #1 hit on the Billboard charts: Nat King Cole ("Mona Lisa"), topped "Best Sellers in Stores" chart on July 15 (See also: Mills Brothers, 1943; Count Basie, 1947; Tommy Edwards, 1958; The Platters, 1959)^{[citation needed]}

1954

First African-American woman to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress: Dorothy Dandridge (Carmen Jones, 1954).^[30]^{[Note 2]}
First individual African-American woman as subject on the cover of Life magazine: Dorothy Dandridge, November 1, 1954^[30]

1955

First African-American member of the Metropolitan Opera: Marian Anderson^[31]
First African-American male dancer in a major ballet company: Arthur Mitchell (New York City Ballet); also first African-American principal dancer of a major ballet company (NYCB), 1956.^[32] (See also: 1969)
First African-American singer to appear in a telecast opera: Leontyne Price in NBC's production of Tosca

1956

First African-American star of a nationwide network TV show: Nat King Cole of The Nat King Cole Show, NBC (See also: 1948)

1957

First African-American to win the Best Actor Award at the Cannes Film Festival: John Kitzmiller (Dolina Miru)^[33]

1958

First African American to reach number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100: Tommy Edwards ("It's All in the Game"), September 29 (See also: The Platters, 1959)^{[citation needed]}

1959

First African-American Grammy Award winners, in the award's inaugural year: Ella Fitzgerald and Count Basie (two awards each)^[34]
First African-American group to reach #1 on the Billboard Hot 100: The Platters ("Smoke Gets in Your Eyes"), January 19 (See also: Tommy Edwards, 1958)

1960

1961

First African-American woman to perform at a presidential inauguration: Opera singer Marian Anderson at John F. Kennedy's inauguration^{[citation needed]}
First African-American tenor to sing leading roles for the Metropolitan Opera: George Shirley

1963

First African American to appear as a series regular on a primetime dramatic television series: Cicely Tyson, "East Side/West Side" (CBS).^[35]^[36]
First African American to be nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award: Diahann Carroll, for Outstanding Single Performance by an Actress in a Lead Role, for episode "A Horse Has a Big Head, Let Him Worry" of Naked City (See also: 1968)

1964

First movie with African-American interracial marriage: One Potato, Two Potato,^[37] actors Bernie Hamilton and Barbara Barrie, written by Orville H. Hampton, Raphael Hayes, directed by Larry Peerce

1965

First African-American nationally syndicated cartoonist: Morrie Turner (Wee Pals)
First African-American title character of a comic book series: Lobo (Dell Comics).^[38]^{[Note 3]} (See also: The Falcon, 1969, and Luke Cage, 1972)
First African-American star of a network television drama: Bill Cosby, I Spy (co-star with Robert Culp)
First African-American cast member of a daytime soap opera: Micki Grant who played Peggy Nolan Harris on Another World until 1972.
First African-American Playboy Playmate centerfold: Jennifer Jackson (March issue)

1966

First African-American male to be nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award and first African-American to win a Primetime Emmy Award: Bill Cosby, I Spy
First African-American model on the cover of a Vogue (British Vogue) magazine: Donyale Luna

1967

First African-American interracial kiss on network television: entertainers Nancy Sinatra (Italian-American) and Sammy Davis Jr. (African-American) on Sinatra's variety special Movin' With Nancy, airing December 11 on NBC^[39] (See also: 1968)

1968

First African-American interracial kiss on a network television drama: Uhura, played by Nichelle Nichols (African-American), and Captain Kirk, played by William Shatner (white Canadian): Star Trek: "Plato's Stepchildren" (See also: 1967)
First fine-arts museum devoted to African-American work: Studio Museum in Harlem
First African-American actress to star in her own television series where she did not play a domestic worker: Diahann Carroll in Julia (see also: 1963)
First African-American starring character of a comic strip: Danny Raven in Dateline: Danger! by Al McWilliams and John Saunders.^[40]^[41]
First African-American actor to star in the lead role on a TV western series: Otis Young in The Outcasts

1969

First African-American superhero: The Falcon, Marvel Comics' Captain America #117 (September 1969).^[42]^{[Note 3]} (See also: Lobo, 1965 and Luke Cage, 1972)
First African-American director of a major Hollywood motion picture: Gordon Parks (The Learning Tree)
First African-American founder of a classical training school and company of ballet: Arthur Mitchell, Dance Theatre of Harlem (See also: 1955)
First African-American woman to appear on the Grand Ole Opry: Linda Martell

1970

First African-American woman to win a Primetime Emmy Award: Gail Fisher, for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, for Mannix (see also: 1971)

1971

First African American to win a Golden Globe Award: Gail Fisher for Mannix (see also: 1970)
First African American to appear by herself on the cover of Playboy: Darine Stern (October issue)

1972

First African-American superhero to star in own comic-book series: Luke Cage, Marvel Comics' Luke Cage, Hero for Hire #1 (June 1972).^[43]^{[Note 3]} (See also: Lobo, 1965, and the Falcon, 1969)
First African-American interracial romantic kiss in a mainstream comics magazine: "The Men Who Called Him Monster", by writer Don McGregor (See also: 1975) and artist Luis Garcia, in Warren Publishing's black-and-white horror-comics magazine Creepy #43 (Jan. 1972) (See also: 1975)^[44]
First African-American interracial male kiss on network television: Sammy Davis Jr. (African-American) and Carroll O'Connor (Caucasian) in All in the Family^[45]
First African-American woman Broadway director: Vinnette Justine Carroll (Don't Bother Me, I Can't Cope)
First African-American comic-book creator to receive a "created by" cover-credit: Wayne Howard (Midnight Tales #1)

1973

First African-American Bond villain in a James Bond movie: Yaphet Kotto, playing Mr. Big/Dr. Kananga, Live and Let Die.
First African-American Bond Girl in a James Bond movie: Gloria Hendry (playing Rosie Carver), Live and Let Die.

1974

First African-American model on the cover of American Vogue magazine: Beverly Johnson

1975

First African-American interracial couple in a TV-series cast: The Jeffersons, actors Franklin Cover (Caucasian) and Roxie Roker (African-American) as Tom and Helen Willis, respectively; series creator: Norman Lear
First African-American interracial romantic kiss in a color comic book: Amazing Adventures #31 (July 1975), feature "Killraven: Warrior of the Worlds", characters M'Shulla Scott and Carmilla Frost, by writer Don McGregor and artist P. Craig Russell^[46] (See also: 1972)
First African-American model on the cover of Elle magazine: Beverly Johnson

1980

First African-American-oriented cable channel: BET^[47]

1982

First African American to receive the Pulitzer Prize for Drama: Charles Fuller for A Soldier's Play
First African-American woman to become a principal dancer of the Pennsylvania Ballet: Debra Austin

1983

First African-American artist to have a video shown on MTV: Michael Jackson^[48]

1986

First African-American musicians inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, in the inaugural class: Chuck Berry, James Brown, Ray Charles, Sam Cooke, Fats Domino, and Little Richard
First African-American woman, and first woman, to top the Billboard 200 year-end list: Whitney Houston (Whitney Houston)

1987

First African-American woman, and first woman, inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame: Aretha Franklin
First African-American Radio City Music Hall Rockette: Jennifer Jones
First African-American woman, and first woman, to have an album debut at number one on the Billboard 200: Whitney Houston (Whitney)

1988

First African-American, and first person, to have seven consecutive number one singles on the Billboard Hot 100: Whitney Houston

1990

First African-American woman to become a principal dancer at Houston Ballet: Lauren Anderson^[49]
First African-American Playboy Playmate of the Year: Renee Tenison

1991

First African American nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director: John Singleton for Boyz n the Hood

1992

First African-American woman to win the Grammy Award for Album of the Year: Natalie Cole for Unforgettable... with Love.
First African-American artist, and first artist, to have an album sell a million copies in a single week: Whitney Houston for The Bodyguard.

1993

First African American woman to win the Nobel Prize for Literature: Toni Morrison
First African-American woman named Poet Laureate of the United States: Rita Dove; also the youngest person named to that position
First African- American to be inducted as a member of the Grand Ole Opry: Charley Pride^[50]

1994

First African-American woman director of a major-studio movie: Darnell Martin (Columbia Pictures' I Like It Like That)
First African-American woman to win as artist and producer for the Grammy Award for Album of the Year: Whitney Houston (The Bodyguard)

1995

First African-American inductee to the National Radio Hall of Fame: Hal Jackson
First African American, and first person, to have a song to debut at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart: Michael Jackson^[51]

1996

First African-American woman to make more than $10 million a motion picture: Whitney Houston (The Preacher's Wife)

1997

First African-American actor to star in the lead role in a comic-book adaptation movie (Spawn): Michael Jai White

2000

First African American to be inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame: Charley Pride^[52]

21st century

2001

First African-American woman to win the ASCAP Pop Music Songwriter of the Year award: Beyoncé Knowles

2002

First African-American woman to win the Academy Award for Best Actress: Halle Berry

2004

First African American to win Broadway theater's Tony Award for Best Lead Actress in a Play: Phylicia Rashad

2009

First African American to win the Pulitzer Prize for History: Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family

2012

First African American to direct an animated film with a budget in excess of $100 million: Peter Ramsey (Rise of the Guardians)

2013

First African-American president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences: Cheryl Boone Isaacs^[53]

2014

First African-American woman to be nominated for Best Director by the Golden Globe Awards: Ava DuVernay for Selma ^[54]

2017

First African-American and first person to have nail art exhibited at the Museum of Modern Art: Bernadette Thompson^[55]

Notes

^ While considered a network for regulatory reasons, CBS TV was viewable only locally in 1948. By 1956, CBS and other networks were viewable nationwide.
^ At that time, nominations were announced in November of the year of release, instead of early the following year.
^ ^a ^b ^c The first Black superhero, Marvel's Black Panther, introduced in Fantastic Four #52 (July 1966), is African, not African-American. This is also true of the first Black character to star in his own mainstream comic-book feature, Waku, Prince of the Bantu, who headlined one of four features in the multiple-character omnibus series Jungle Tales (September 1954 – September 1955), from Marvel's 1950s predecessor, Atlas Comics.

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^ Herbst, Philip H (1997). The Color of Words: An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Ethnic Bias in the United States. Intercultural Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-877864-97-1
^ ^a ^b 🖉"Literature". Encyclopedia.com.
^ "Lucy Terry's " Bars Fight. " Text from San Antonio College LitWeb". Alamo.edu. Archived from the original on July 19, 2011. Retrieved June 29, 2011.
^ O'Neale, Sondra (2002). "Hammon, Jupiter". In William L Andrews; Frances Smith Foster; Trudier Harris (eds.). The Concise Oxford Companion to African American Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195138832. Archived from the original on April 7, 2015. Retrieved October 27, 2015.
^ Shields, John C. (2010). Phillis Wheatley and the Romantics. University of Tennessee Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-57233-712-1. Archived from the original on January 3, 2014. Retrieved May 28, 2013.
^ Zack, Naomi (1995). American mixed race: the culture of microdiversity. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-8476-8013-9. Archived from the original on January 3, 2014. Retrieved May 29, 2013.
^ Brooks, Tim (2004). Lost Sounds: Blacks and the Birth of the Recording Industry, 1890–1919. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. pp. 15–71
^ Slawson, Robert (2011-01-27). "Ann Bradford Stokes (1830–1903)". Black Past. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
^ Tardif, Elyssa (2013). Providence's Benefit Street. Arcadia Publishing. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-7385-9923-6. Archived from the original on January 3, 2014. Retrieved May 31, 2013.
^ Susan Love Brown (2006). "Economic Life". In Paul Finkelman (ed.). Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619–1895: from the colonial period to the age of Frederick Douglass. Vol. 1. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 121–129. ISBN 0195167775.
^ Brooks, Tim, and Dick Spottswood. Lost Sounds: Blacks and the Birth of the Recording Industry, 1890–1919. University of Illinois Press, 2004. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/j.ctt2jcc81. Accessed 8 Oct. 2020.(pp. 254–258)
^ Baker, Josephine; Bouillon, Joe (1977). Josephine (First ed.). New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-010212-8.
^ Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit, MI: Gale. 2004. pp. 455–456. ISBN 978-0-7876-9124-0.
^ Baker, David. "Important Firsts: Groups and Their Leaders, and Groups and Personnel". Jazz in America. The Thelonious Monk Institute of Jazz. Archived from the original on January 15, 2011. Retrieved June 6, 2013.
^ Strunk, William Oliver; Treitler, Leo (1998). Source Readings in Music History. Norton. p. 1421. ISBN 978-0-393-03752-4. Archived from the original on January 3, 2014. Retrieved June 5, 2013.
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^ Jackson, Carlton (1993). Hattie: The Life of Hattie McDaniel. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-56833-004-4. Archived from the original on January 3, 2014. Retrieved June 5, 2013.
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^ Matt Baker at the Grand Comics Database. Archived from the original on April 24, 2015. Artist credits were not routinely given in comic books in the 1940s, so comprehensive credits are very difficult if not impossible to ascertain.
^ "1st African-American Published Comic – All Negro #1- (1947) Comes to Auction". Metropolis Collectibles Inc. / ComicConnect Corp. press release via BlackRadioNetwork.com. February 2009. Archived from the original on July 2, 2011. Retrieved July 1, 2011.
^ Sperb, Jason (2012). Disney's Most Notorious Film: Race, Convergence, and the Hidden Histories of Song of the South. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-292-74981-8. Archived from the original on October 13, 2013. Retrieved June 24, 2013.
^ Smith, Catherine Parsons (2008). William Grant Still. American composers. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-252-03322-3. Archived from the original on October 13, 2013. Retrieved June 24, 2013.
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^ Manos, Nick (February 3, 2009). "Blayton, Jesse B., Sr. (1879–1977)". BlackPast.org. Archived from the original on November 10, 2014. Retrieved November 2, 2012.
^ Weaver, Joshua R. (June 9, 2011). "The Great Black Way? Black Tony Award Winners". TheRoot.com. Archived from the original on February 22, 2015. Retrieved February 22, 2015.
^ Clarage, Elizabeth C; Elizabeth A Brennan, eds. (1999). Who's who of Pulitzer Prize winners. Phoenix, Arizona: Oryx Press. p. 522. ISBN 9781573561112.
^ ^a ^b Otfinoski, Steven (2010). "Dandridge, Dorothy". African Americans in the Performing Arts. A to Z of African Americans (Revised ed.). New York: Facts On File. pp. 51–52. ISBN 978-1-4381-2855-9. Retrieved June 26, 2013.
^ Keiler, Allan (2002). Marian Anderson: A Singer's Journey. University of Illinois Press. p. 274. ISBN 978-0-252-07067-9. Archived from the original on January 3, 2014. Retrieved July 29, 2013.
^ "The Black Presence in American Dance: Arthur Mitchell". (Biographical capsule) Spelman College. Archived from the original on December 14, 2004.
^ "John Kitzmiller". Festival de Cannes 2019. Retrieved February 16, 2019.
^ "Winners −1958: First Annual Grammy Awards". The Recording Academy. Archived from the original on April 24, 2015. Retrieved April 24, 2015. Presented May 4, 1959, for recordings made in 1958.
^ "Cicely Tyson Biography (1924–2021)". Biography.com. Retrieved February 28, 2019. In 1963 Tyson became the first African American star of a TV drama in the series East Side/West Side...
^ Cosham, Ralph H. (November 25, 1963). "Negro Comes to Television; Sponsors Happy". Nashville Banner. United Press International. p. 29. Retrieved January 29, 2021 – via Newspapers.com. …only one dramatic program features a Negro as a regular member of the cast. She is Cicely Tyson, who portrays a social worker in the new CBS series East Side, West Side.
^ Hudson, David (n.d.). "Black Cinema". GreenCine.com. Archived from the original on July 7, 2011. Update of Hudson (June 10, 2003). "SFBFF: Experience and Empowerment". Archived from the original on July 7, 2011. Retrieved July 7, 2011. Note: Asian-American interracial marriage had previously been portrayed.
^ Duncan, Randy; Smith, Matthew J. (2013). Icons of the American Comic Book: From Captain America to Wonder Woman. ABC-CLIO. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-313-39924-4. Archived from the original on January 3, 2014. Retrieved May 27, 2013.
^ Nancy Sinatra (May 2, 2000). Movin' with Nancy (DVD Commentary Track). Chatsworth, California: Image Entertainment.
^ "A. S. McWilliams, 77, Comic Strip Cartoonist". The New York Times. March 25, 1993. Archived from the original on April 17, 2014. Retrieved April 12, 2014.
^ Horn, Maurice, ed. (1996). 100 Years of American Newspaper Comics. New York: Gramercy Books. pp. 91–92. ISBN 0-517-12447-5.
^ Boyd, Todd (2008). African Americans and Popular Culture. Westport, CN: Praeger. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-313-06408-1. Archived from the original on January 3, 2014. Retrieved May 27, 2013.
^ Bould, Mark; Butler, Andrew M.; Roberts, Adam; Sherryl Vint (2009). The Routledge Companion to Science Fiction. Taylor & Francis. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-203-87131-7. Archived from the original on January 3, 2014. Retrieved May 28, 2013.
^ The earliest known humorous interracial kiss was in the story "Home Cooking" in Premier Magazine's satirical comic book Nuts #1 (March 1954), per its listing at the Grand Comics Database. Archived from the original on October 12, 2013.
^ "Sammy's Visit". All in the Family. Season 2. Episode 34. February 12, 1972. CBS. In the comedy All in the Family, at the last moment as a picture is taken, Sammy Davis, Jr., playing himself, chides the bigoted but celebrity-fawning Archie Bunker with a humorous kiss on the cheek.
^ O'English, Mark (2014). "Killraven". In Booker, M. Keith (ed.). Comics through Time : A History of Icons, Idols, and Ideas. Greenwood Publishing. p. 666. ISBN 978-0313397509.
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^ "Welcome to the Golden Age of Nail Art". Harper's BAZAAR. 2023-08-01. Retrieved 2024-09-26.

[26] While considered a network for regulatory reasons, CBS TV was viewable only locally in 1948. By 1956, CBS and other networks were viewable nationwide.

[dandridge-nomination-32] At that time, nominations were announced in November of the year of release, instead of early the following year.

[marvel_group=Note-41] The first Black superhero, Marvel's Black Panther, introduced in Fantastic Four #52 (July 1966), is African, not African-American. This is also true of the first Black character to star in his own mainstream comic-book feature, Waku, Prince of the Bantu, who headlined one of four features in the multiple-character omnibus series Jungle Tales (September 1954 – September 1955), from Marvel's 1950s predecessor, Atlas Comics.

[1] Juguo, Zhang (2001). W. E. B. Du Bois: The Quest for the Abolition of the Color Line. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-93087-1

[2] Herbst, Philip H (1997). The Color of Words: An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Ethnic Bias in the United States. Intercultural Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-877864-97-1

[auto1-3] 🖉"Literature". Encyclopedia.com.

[4] "Lucy Terry's " Bars Fight. " Text from San Antonio College LitWeb". Alamo.edu. Archived from the original on July 19, 2011. Retrieved June 29, 2011.

[5] O'Neale, Sondra (2002). "Hammon, Jupiter". In William L Andrews; Frances Smith Foster; Trudier Harris (eds.). The Concise Oxford Companion to African American Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195138832. Archived from the original on April 7, 2015. Retrieved October 27, 2015.

[Shields2010-6] Shields, John C. (2010). Phillis Wheatley and the Romantics. University of Tennessee Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-57233-712-1. Archived from the original on January 3, 2014. Retrieved May 28, 2013.

[Zack1995-7] Zack, Naomi (1995). American mixed race: the culture of microdiversity. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-8476-8013-9. Archived from the original on January 3, 2014. Retrieved May 29, 2013.

[8] Brooks, Tim (2004). Lost Sounds: Blacks and the Birth of the Recording Industry, 1890–1919. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. pp. 15–71

[:02-9] Slawson, Robert (2011-01-27). "Ann Bradford Stokes (1830–1903)". Black Past. Retrieved 2020-05-09.

[TardifSociety2013-10] Tardif, Elyssa (2013). Providence's Benefit Street. Arcadia Publishing. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-7385-9923-6. Archived from the original on January 3, 2014. Retrieved May 31, 2013.

[11] Susan Love Brown (2006). "Economic Life". In Paul Finkelman (ed.). Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619–1895: from the colonial period to the age of Frederick Douglass. Vol. 1. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 121–129. ISBN 0195167775.

[12] Brooks, Tim, and Dick Spottswood. Lost Sounds: Blacks and the Birth of the Recording Industry, 1890–1919. University of Illinois Press, 2004. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/j.ctt2jcc81. Accessed 8 Oct. 2020.(pp. 254–258)

[13] Baker, Josephine; Bouillon, Joe (1977). Josephine (First ed.). New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-010212-8.

[14] Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit, MI: Gale. 2004. pp. 455–456. ISBN 978-0-7876-9124-0.

[Baker2010-15] Baker, David. "Important Firsts: Groups and Their Leaders, and Groups and Personnel". Jazz in America. The Thelonious Monk Institute of Jazz. Archived from the original on January 15, 2011. Retrieved June 6, 2013.

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