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Michael R. Rampino

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Michael R. Rampino
Volcanic fieldwork in Hawaii
Born
U.S.A.
EducationColumbia University (PhD Geological Science) Hunter College CUNY, (BA Magna Cum Laude, Honors in Geology)
Scientific career
Fields
Institutions
WebsiteM.R.Rampino NYU website

Michael R. Rampino is a Geologist and Professor of Biology and Environmental Studies at New York University,[1] known for his scientific contributions on causes of mass extinctions of life. Along with colleagues, he's developed theories about periodic mass extinctions being strongly related to the earth's position in relation to the galaxy. "The solar system and its planets experience cataclysms every time they pass "up" or "down" through the plane of the disk-shaped galaxy."[2][3] These ~30 million year cyclical breaks are an important factor in evolutionary theory,[4][5] along with other longer 60-million- and 140-million-year cycles potentially caused by mantle plumes within the planet, opining "The Earth seems to have a pulse,"[6] He is also a research consultant at NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) in New York City.[7]

Rampino's research has been concentrated in several areas including: studies of climate change on various timescales; the products and dynamics of volcanic eruptions and their effects on the global environment;[8][9] and the relationship of large asteroid and comet impacts,[10][11] and massive flood-basalt volcanism,[12] with mass extinctions of life.

His most recent work has sought a connection between geologic events and astronomical processes, including encounters of Earth with dark matter in the Galaxy.[13]

Rampino's interest in Astrobiology is evidenced by the text, “Origins of Life in the Universe”,[14] co-authored with Robert Jastrow (Cambridge University Press, 2008), and a new book, “Cataclysms: A New Geology for the 21st Century”[15] (Columbia University Press, 2017).

Rampino received his B.A. from Hunter College of CUNY and a Ph.D. in geological sciences from Columbia University.[16] He was a post-doc at the NASA, Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City and Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory in Palisades, New York studying climate change. He was an Associate Research Scientist at the NASA, Goddard Institute for 5 years, studying the effects of volcanic eruptions on climate, before taking up his present position at NYU.[17]

At New York University, Rampino teaches the popular astrobiology course, “Earth, Life & Time” on the evolution of the Universe. He won an NYU "Golden Dozen” teaching award in 2011. He was instrumental in convening three American Geophysical Union Chapman Conferences on “Volcanoes and Climate” in 1992 (Hilo, Hawaii), 2002 (Santorini, Greece) and 2012 (Selfoss, Iceland) and two international meetings on “Small Bodies in the Solar System” in Mariehamn, Sweden (1994) and in Hikon, Japan (1997). He has been a visiting professor at Tohoku University and Yamaguchi University in Japan, the University of Florence and University of Urbino in Italy, and the University of Vienna in Austria and a lecturer for the annual Urbino Summer School in Paleoclimatology.

Rampino's research has been funded by NASA, the United States Department of Energy, the American Philosophical Society, and the National Science Foundation.

Fields of study

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Climate change on various timescales

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Rampino has been interested in climatic changes on time scales ranging from decades to hundreds of millions of years (Paleoclimatology). Early work centered on multi-year climate cooling after explosive volcanic eruptions,[18][19] the post-glacial rise in sea level over the last 10,000 years,[20] and glacial/interglacial climate and sea level over the last 150,000 years.[21][22] In papers with Ken Caldeira at the Carnegie Institution, he explored the relationships of seafloor-spreading rates, atmospheric CO2 and climate in the very warm mid-Cretaceous Period 100 million years ago. They also considered the so-called “Goldilocks Problem” of Earth's habitability.[23][24] More recent research is focused on the effects of flood-basalt volcanism and asteroid/comet impacts on climate and biological evolution.[25][26][27][28][29] Rampino proposed the radical idea that some “glacial” deposits in the geologic record are actually impact-related debris flows.[30]

Effects of volcanic eruptions on the global environment

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Rampino has investigated the climatic and environmental effects of stratospheric aerosol clouds produced by explosive volcanic eruptions.[31] With his colleagues Stephen Self, now at UC Berkeley and Richard Stothers of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies he studied the volcanic production of atmospheric sulfate aerosols using volcanological measurements of magmatic sulfur release,[32] observations of volcanic aerosol clouds, and the record of atmospheric phenomena and climate changes after volcanic eruptions from historical accounts (including the ancient literature),[33][34] and from the record of volcanism contained in polar ice cores[35][36]

These studies included detailed field investigations of the historic 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, the 1963 eruption of Mount Agung and the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia, and their climatic aftermath.[37] The famous “year without a summer” in 1816, during which Mary Shelley was forced to stay indoors to write Frankenstein, followed the great Tambora eruption.[38] One focus of investigation is the huge “supereruption” (a word coined by Rampino and Self) of Mount Toba (now Lake Toba) in Sumatra ~74,000 years ago.[39] This event may have created a severe “volcanic winter” (another term coined by Rampino) leading to a human population crash predicted from studies of the human genome.[40] Such large eruptions threaten civilization.[41][42]

Asteroid and comet impacts, massive volcanism and mass extinctions of life

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Rampino became interested in the catastrophic effects of asteroids and comet impacts when it was discovered that the Chicxulub asteroid impact event (66 million years ago) had created the huge Chicxulub crater in Mexico, and led to the extinction of many forms of life, including the dinosaurs. Rampino has studied the globally distributed evidence for the Chicxulub impact with fieldwork in Europe, the western United States, Mexico and the Caribbean.[43] After a periodic 26-million year cycle was proposed for mass extinctions of life in 1984,[44] Rampino and Stothers reported a similar cycle in the ages of impact craters on the Earth.[45][46] To explain the cycles, they proposed the “Shiva Hypothesis” in which the 30-million year oscillation of the Solar System through the dense Galactic plane leads to periodic comet showers on Earth.[47][48]

More recent work has centered on the severe Permian–Triassic extinction event (252 million years ago), with fieldwork in South Africa, Hungary, Japan, India and China, particularly focused on the so-called “fungal event” marking the devastation of Late Permian vegetation.[49][50] Rampino and colleagues found evidence that the mass extinction of 96% of marine species and much of life on land may have occurred in a brief period of only a few thousand years, suggesting some sort of cataclysm [51] It turns out that this extinction occurred at the same time as the massive eruption of the Siberian Flood basalts. In 2017, Rampino and colleagues, studying the record of the great extinction, discovered a coincident worldwide layer rich in nickel that had been released by emanations from the huge eruptions.[52] He and Caldeira concluded that most of the mass extinctions in the last 260 million years seem to have been associated with environmental catastrophes caused by either large impacts or flood-basalt eruptions.[53]

In 2017–18, Rampino contributed popular articles on mass extinctions, impacts and the Galaxy to American Scientist and Astronomy Magazines.

Connections between geologic events and Earth’s interactions with Dark Matter

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In 1993, Rampino and Caldeira reported a ubiquitous 26-million year cycle in geologic plate tectonic and volcanic activity.[54][55] More recently, Rampino related this cycle to the Solar System's oscillation through the plane of the Milky Way Galaxy, which has a similar period. He attributes the Earth's internal-activity cycle to the planet's encounters with clumps of mysterious dark matter in the Galactic plane.[56] Astrophysicists suggested that the dark matter particles can become trapped within the Earth where they self-destruct, releasing large amounts of heat and leading to periodic pulses in the planet's internal geologic activity. Thus, geologic activity on the Earth may be modulated by astrophysical circumstances.[57]

Media

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Rampino has appeared in many documentaries produced by PBS NOVA (Mystery of the Mega-Volcano, and Volcano!), BBC Horizon (Under the Volcano), the Discovery Channel (Three Minutes to Impact; Amazing Earth), the National Geographic Channel (Earth-Staying Alive), the History Channel (Story of Moses and the Plagues of Egypt), Japanese TV (Space and Life) and has appeared on local and national news programs (ABC, CBS, NBC, CNN, PBS, Fox News, and others). He is listed in the Internet Movie Data Base (IMDb)[58] for appearances in Supervolcanoes (2000);[59] Mystery of the Minoans (2001);[60] The Day The Earth Nearly Died (2002);[61] Last Days of Earth (2006);[62] Inside the Volcano (2006);[63] Krakatoa (2008);[64] Super Volcano: Yellowstone's Fury (2013);[65] Doomsday Volcanoes (2013);[66] What on Earth? (2015);[67] The Dark Matter Enigma (2017);[68] and X-Ray Earth: Volcanic Cataclysms (2020).[69]

Books

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Rampino has published two books, a text for a course on Astrobiology (Jastrow and Rampino, 2008) and a popular portrayal of the effects of catastrophic events on Earth history and the history of life (Rampino, 2017). He was co-editor of the conference volume “Climate: History, Periodicity and Predictability” published in 1987.

Selected Articles

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  • Rampino, M.R., et al., 2019a, “What causes mass extinctions of life? Impact cataclysms, flood-basalt volcanism and ocean anoxia: Correlations and cycles”: Geological Society of America Special Paper 542, p. 271-302.
  • Rampino, M.R., et al., 2019b, “End-Permian stratigraphic timeline applied to the timing of marine and non-marine extinctions”: Palaeoworld, doi.org/10.1016/l.palwor.2019.10.002
  • Rampino, M.R., and Shen, S-Z., 2019, “The end-Guadalupian (259.8 Ma) biodiversity crisis: the sixth major mass extinction?” Historical Biology. doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2019.1658096
  • Rampino, M.R., 2020, “Relationship between impact-crater size and severity of related extinction episodes”: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 201, no. 102990.
  • Rampino, M.R., et al., 2020a. “Proxy evidence from the Gartnerkofel-1 core (Carnic Alps, Austria) for hypoxic conditions in the western Tethys during the end-Permian mass-extinction event”: Chemical Geology, v. 533, no. 119434
  • Rampino, M.R., et al., 2020b. “A 27.5-million year underlying cycle detected in extinctions of non-marine tetrapods”: Historical Biology doi.org/10.1080/0891.2020
  • Rampino, M.R., and Prokoph, A., 2020, “Are impact craters and extinction episodes periodic? Implications for planetary science and astrobiology”: Astrobiology, v. 20, p. 1-8.
  • Rampino, M.R., and Caldeira, K., 2020, “A 32-million year cycle detected in sea-level fluctuations over the last 545 Myr”. Geoscience Frontiers, v. 11, p. 2061-2065.
  • Rampino, M.R., et al., 2021a, “A pulse of the Earth: A 27.5-Myr underlying cycle in coordinated geological events over the last 260 Myr”: Geoscience Frontiers, v 12, no. 101245.
  • Zhang, H., Rampino, M.R., et al., 2021, “Felsic volcanism as a factor driving the end-Permian mass extinction”. Science Advances, v. 7, no. eabh 1390 (2021).
  • Rampino, M.R., 2022, “Does the Earth have a pulse? Evidence relating to a potential underlying ~26 to 36-million-year rhythm in interrelated geologic, biologic and astrophysical events”: Geological Society of America Special Paper 557, p. 347-369.
  • Rampino, M.R., et al., 2022. “Reply detection of a 27.5-My cycle in extinctions of non-marine tetrapods in light of a similar cycle in marine extinctions and coordinated geologic events”. Historical Biology, v. 34, p 212-215.
  • Rampino, M.R., Caldeira, K., and Rodriguez, S., 2023, “Cycles of ~32.5 My and ~26.2 My in correlated episodes of continental flood basalts (CFBs), hyper-thermal climate pulses, anoxic oceans, and mass extinctions over the last 260 My: Connections between geological and astronomical cycles”: Earth-Science Reviews (in press).
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References

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  1. ^ "Michael R. Rampino". nyu.edu. New York University. Retrieved 20 August 2018.
  2. ^ Rensberger, Boyce. "Solar Cycle Of Cataclysms". The Washington Post. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  3. ^ Tandon, Dhriti (5 March 2015). "NYU professor's research reveals significance of Earth's movements". nyunews.com. Washington Square News. Retrieved 20 August 2018.
  4. ^ O'Hanlon, Larry. "Volcano helped dinosaurs gain upper hand". Discovery News. ABC Local. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  5. ^ News Staff (27 August 2014). "Gradual Evolution Not Supported By Geological History, Says Geologist". Science 2.0. ION Publications LLC. Retrieved 20 August 2018.
  6. ^ Choi, Charles Q (30 April 2013). "Plumes of Molten Rock Could Drive Biodiversity, Climate Cycles". LiveScience.com. Purch inc. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  7. ^ "AmSci listing". American Scientist. Retrieved 20 August 2018.
  8. ^ Embury-Dennis, Tom (4 October 2017). "The Great Dying: Earth's biggest mass extinction 'caused by Siberian volcanoes' 250 million years ago". The Independent. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  9. ^ Rampino, Michael R; Self, Stephen (September 1992). "Volcanic winter and accelerated glaciation following the Toba super-eruption". Nature. 359 (6390): 50. Bibcode:1992Natur.359...50R. doi:10.1038/359050a0. S2CID 4322781.
  10. ^ O'Calligan, Jonathan (5 May 2017). "A Massive Impact Crater May Be Hiding Near The Falklands". IFLScience.com. IFLS, Inc 5 May 2017. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  11. ^ Rampino, Michael R.; Stothers, Richard B (April 1984). "Terrestrial mass extinctions, cometary impacts and the Sun's motion perpendicular to the galactic plane". Nature. 308 (5961): 709–712. Bibcode:1984Natur.308..709R. doi:10.1038/308709a0. S2CID 4256690. Retrieved 20 August 2018.
  12. ^ Rampino, Michael R.; Stothers, Richard B (8 May 1988). "Flood basalt volcanism during the past 250 million years". Science. 241 (4866): 663–668. Bibcode:1988Sci...241..663R. doi:10.1126/science.241.4866.663. PMID 17839077. S2CID 33327812. Retrieved 20 August 2018.
  13. ^ Rampino, Michael (12 September 2017). "DID DARK MATTER KILL THE DINOSAURS? HOW MASS EXTINCTIONS ARE LINKED WITH UNIVERSE'S MYSTERY INGREDIENT". Newsweek.com. Newsweek LLC. Retrieved 20 August 2018.
  14. ^ Jastrow, R., and Rampino, M.R., 2008, Origins of Life in the Universe (Cambridge University Press) 978-0521532839.
  15. ^ Rampino, M.R., 2017, Cataclysms: A New Geology for the Twenty-First Century (Columbia Univ. Press) 978-0231177801.
  16. ^ Rampino, Michael. "Education". Michael R. Rampino Professor of Biology. New York University. Retrieved 21 August 2018.
  17. ^ Rampino, Michael. "Research". Michael R. Rampino Professor of Biology. New York University. Retrieved 21 August 2018.
  18. ^ Self, S., M.R. Rampino, and J.J. Barbera, 1981, The effects of large 19th and 20th Century volcanic eruptions on zonal and hemispheric surface temperatures, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 11, p. 41-60.
  19. ^ Rampino, M.R., and J.E. Sanders, 1980, Holocene transgression in south-central Long Island, New York, Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 50, p. 1063-1080.
  20. ^ Rampino, M.R., 1979, Holocene submergence of southern Long Island, New York, Nature, v. 280, p. 132-134
  21. ^ Rampino, M.R., and J.E. Sanders, 1981, Upper Quaternary stratigraphy of southern Long Island, New York, Northeastern Geology, v. 3, p. 116-128
  22. ^ Rampino, M.R., S. Self., and R.W. Fairbridge, 1979, Can rapid climate change cause volcanic eruptions? Science, v. 206, p. 826-829.
  23. ^ Caldeira, K., and M.R. Rampino, 1991, The Mid-Cretaceous super plume, carbon dioxide and global warming, Geophysical Research Letters, v. 18, p. 987-990
  24. ^ Rampino, M.R., and Caldeira, K., 1994, The Goldilocks Problem: Climatic evolution and long-term habitability of terrestrial planets, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, v. 32, p. 83-114.
  25. ^ Rampino, M.R. and Caldeira, K., 2018, Comparison of the ages of large-body impacts, flood basalt eruptions and extinction events over the last 260 Myr: A statistical study: International Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 107, p.601-60
  26. ^ Rampino, M.R., and R.B. Stothers, 1988, Flood basalt volcanism during the past 250 million years, Science, v. 241, p. 663-668
  27. ^ Becker, L., Poreda, R.J., Hunt, A.G., R., Bunch, T.E., and Rampino, M.R., 2001, Impact event at the Permian-Triassic boundary: Evidence from extraterrestrial noble gases in fullerenes: Science , v. 291, p. 1530-1533
  28. ^ Rampino, M.R., 1987, Impact cratering and flood basalt volcanism, Nature, v. 327, p. 468; 20
  29. ^ Rocca, M., Rampino, M.R., and Presser, J., 2017, Geophysical evidence for a large impact structure on the Falkland (Malvinas) Plateau. Terra Nova
  30. ^ Rampino, M.R., 2017, Are some tillites impact-related debris-flow deposits? Journal of Geology, v. 125, p. 155-164
  31. ^ Rampino, M.R., and S. Self, 1982, The historic eruptions of Tambora (1815), Krakatau (1883) and Agung (1963), their stratospheric aerosols and climatic impact, Quaternary Research, v. 18, p. 127-143.
  32. ^ Rampino, M.R., and S. Self, 1984, Sulphur-rich volcanism and stratospheric aerosols, Nature, v. 310, p. 677-679.
  33. ^ Rampino, M.R., S. Self, and R.B. Stothers, 1988, Volcanic winters, Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Science, v. 16, p. 73-9
  34. ^ Stothers, R.B., and M.R. Rampino, 1983, Volcanic eruptions in the Mediterranean before AD 630 from written and archaeological sources, Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 88, p. 6357- 6371.
  35. ^ Castellano, E., Rampino, M.R. et al., 2005, Holocene volcanic history as recorded in the sulfate stratigraphy of the European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctic Dome CV (EDC96) ice core: Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, v. 110, p. 121-12
  36. ^ Stothers, R.B., and M.R. Rampino, 1983, Historic volcanism, European dry fogs, and Greenland acid precipitation, 1500 B.C. to A.D. 1500, Science, v. 220, p. 411-414
  37. ^ Self, S., and M.R. Rampino, 1981, The 1883 eruption of Krakatau, Nature, v. 294, p. 699-704. Self, S., M.R. Rampino, M.S. Newton, and J.A. Wolff, 1984, A volcanological studyof the great Tambora eruption of 1815, Geology, v. 12, p. 659-663; Self, S. and Rampino, M.R., 2012, The 1963 eruption of Agung volcano (Bali, Indonesia). Bulletin of Volcanology, v. 74, p. 1521-1536.
  38. ^ Rampino, M.R., 1989, Distant effects of the Tambora eruption of 1815: An eyewitness account, Eos, Trans. American Geophysical Union, v. 70, p. 1559. Reprinted in C.R. Harrington, ed., 1992, The Year Without a Summer? World Climate in 1816 (Cambridge University Press), p. 12-15.
  39. ^ Rampino, M. R., and S. Self, 1992, Volcanic winter and accelerated glaciation following the Toba super-eruption, Nature, v. 359, p. 50-52.
  40. ^ Rampino, M.R., and Ambrose, S., 2000, Volcanic winter in the Garden of Eden: The Toba super eruption and Late Pleistocene human population crash, in Heiken, G., and McCoy, F., eds., Volcanic Disasters in Human History, Geological Society of America Special Paper 345 , p. 71-82.
  41. ^ Rampino, M.R., 2002, Super eruptions as a threat to civilizations on earthlike planets: Icarus , v. 156, p. 562-569.
  42. ^ Rampino, M.R., 2008, Supervolcanism and other geophysical processes of catastrophic import, in Bostrom, N., and Mirkovich, M.M., eds., Global Catastrophic Risk, (Oxford University Press, Oxford) p. 205-221.
  43. ^ Rampino, M.R., and R.C. Reynolds, 1983, Clay mineralogy of the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary clay, Science, v. 219, p. 495-498.
  44. ^ Raup, D.M., and Sepkoski, J.J., Jr., 1984, Periodicity of extinctions in the geologic past: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, v. 81, p. 801-805.
  45. ^ Rampino, M.R., and R.B. Stothers, 1984, Terrestrial mass extinctions, cometary impacts and the Sun's motion perpendicular to the galactic plane, Nature, v. 308, p. 709-71.
  46. ^ Rampino, M.R., and R.B. Stothers, 1984, Geological rhythms and cometary impacts, Science, v. 226, p. 1427-1431.
  47. ^ Rampino, M.R., and Haggerty, B.M., 1996, The "Shiva Hypothesis": Impacts, mass extinctions and the Galaxy, Earth, Moon, and Planets, v. 72, p. 441-460.
  48. ^ Rampino M.R. et al. (1997) A unified theory of impact crises and mass extinctions: quantitative tests. New York Acad. Science Annals, v. 822, p.403-431.
  49. ^ Steiner, M., Eshet , Y., Rampino, M.R., and Schwindt, D.M., 2003, Fungal abundance spike and the Permian-Triassic boundary in the Karoo Supergroup (South Africa): Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 194, p. 405-414.
  50. ^ Rampino, M.R., and Eshet, Y., 2018, The fungal and acritarch events as time markers for the end-Permian mass extinction: An update: Geoscience Frontiers, v. 9, p. 147-154.
  51. ^ Rampino, M.R., Prokoph, A., and Adler, A.C., 2000, Tempo of the end-Permian event: High-resolution cyclostratigraphy at the Permian-Triassic boundary: Geology, v. 28, p. 415-418.
  52. ^ Rampino, M.R., Rodriguez, S., Baransky, E., and Cai, Y., 2017, Global nickel anomaly, links Siberian Traps eruptions and the end-Permian mass extinction: Scientific Reports, v. 7, 12416.
  53. ^ Rampino, M.R. and Caldeira, K., 2018, Comparison of the ages of large-body impacts, flood basalt eruptions and extinction events over the last 260 Myr: A statistical study: International Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 107, p.601-60
  54. ^ . Rampino, M.R., and K. Caldeira, 1993, Major episodes of geologic change: Correlations, time structure and possible causes, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 114, p. 215-227; Rampino, M.R., and K. Caldeira, 1992, Episodes of terrestrial geologic activity during the past 260 million years: A quantitative approach, Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy, v. 54, p. 143-159.
  55. ^ Rampino, M.R., and Caldeira, K., 2017, Correlation of the largest craters, stratigraphic impact signatures and extinction events over the past 250 Myr. Geoscience Frontiers, v. 8, p. 1241-1245.
  56. ^ Rampino, M.R., 2015, Disc dark matter in the Galaxy and potential cycles of extraterrestrial impacts, mass extinctions and geological events: Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, v. 454, p. 1-5.
  57. ^ Rampino, M.R., Reexamining Lyell’s Laws: American Scientist Magazine, Oct. 2017; Acknowledging Patrick Matthew: Natural History Magazine, December 2017/ January 2018; Dark matter and Earth: A cosmic connection? Astronomy Magazine, March 2018.
  58. ^ "Michael Rampino". imdb.com. IMDb, an Amazon Co.
  59. ^ "Horizon: Supervolcanoes". imdb.com. IMDb, an Amazon Co. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  60. ^ "Ancient Apocalypse (TV Series) Mystery of the Minoans". imdb.com. IMDb, an Amazon Co.
  61. ^ "The Day the Earth Nearly Died". www.imdb.com. IMDB, Amazon company. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  62. ^ "Last Days on Earth". IMDB.com. IMDB, an Amazon Co.
  63. ^ "Inside the Volcano (2006 TV Movie)". imdb.com. IMDB, an Amazon Co. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  64. ^ "Krakatoa (2008 TV Movie)". imdb.com. IMDb, an Amazon Company.
  65. ^ "Supervolcano: Yellowstone's Fury (2013 TV Movie)". imdb.com. IMDb, an Amazon Co.
  66. ^ "Nova: Doomsday Volcanoes (2013)". imdb.com. IMDb, an Amazon Co.
  67. ^ "What on Earth? (2015– )". imdb.com. IMDb, Amazon Co. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  68. ^ "The Dark Matter Enigma (2017)". imdb.com. IMDB, Amazon Company. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  69. ^ "X-Ray Earth (2020)". amazon.com. Amazon Company. Retrieved 15 October 2023.
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