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Polyozellus multiplex

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Polyozellus multiplex
A bluish-purple fungus made of a cluster of fan- or funnel-shaped ruffled segments fused at a common base. Specimen is growing in a bed of green moss.
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Thelephorales
Family: Thelephoraceae
Genus: Polyozellus
Murrill (1910)
Species:
P. multiplex
Binomial name
Polyozellus multiplex
(Underw.) Murrill (1910)
Synonyms[1]

Cantharellus multiplex Underw. (1899)
Phyllocarbon yasudai Lloyd (1921)
Craterellus multiplex (Underw.) Shope (1938)
Thelephora multiplex (Underw.) S.Kawam. (1954)

Polyozellus multiplex
View the Mycomorphbox template that generates the following list
Ridges on hymenium
Cap is infundibuliform
Hymenium attachment is irregular or not applicable
Stipe is bare
Spore print is white
Ecology is mycorrhizal
Edibility is edible

Polyozellus multiplex is a species complex of fungi first described in 1899. P. multiplex is commonly known as the blue chanterelle, the purple chanterelle, or, in Alaska, the black chanterelle. However, this mushroom is not closely related to true chanterelles. While this name used to refer to a group of species, it is now used to describe only one species that held onto the name P. multiplex. The fruiting bodies of this species are blue- to purple-colored clusters of vase- or spoon-shaped caps, with veiny wrinkles on the underside which run down the length of the stem. P. multiplex was considered the monotypic species of the genus Polyozellus until recent molecular research divided the P. multiplex species complex into five species.[2] The genus name is derived from the Greek poly meaning many, and oz, meaning branch. The specific epithet multiplex means "in many pieces," referring to the compound nature of the fruiting body.

P. multiplex may be found growing on the ground in coniferous forests, usually under spruce and fir trees. It is an edible species, and has been harvested for commercial purposes. P. multiplex contains the bioactive compound polyozellin, which has been shown to have various beneficial physiological properties, including suppressive effects on stomach cancer.

Description

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Polyozellus multiplex is part of the group of fungi collectively known as cantharelloid mushrooms (which includes the genera Cantharellus, Craterellus, Gomphus, and Polyozellus), because of the similarity of their fruiting structures and the morphology of the spore-producing region (the hymenophore) on the underside of the caps.[3]

The fan- or funnel-shaped fruit bodies of the black chanterelle grow clustered together on the ground, often in large masses that may reach aggregate diameters of up to 1 meter (3.3 ft),[4][5] although they are usually up to 30 centimeters (11.8 in).[6]

The individual caps, 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) wide and almost as long, are violet-black, with edges that are initially whitish, and with a glaucous surface — a white powdery accumulation of spore deposit.[7] The upper surface may be zonate — lined with what appear to be multiple concentric zones of texture caused by areas of fine hairs (a tomentum) — and the edges of the caps are lobed and wavy with a layer of very fine hairs. The underside of the caps bears the fertile, spore-producing tissue called the hymenium, which typically has shallow, crowded wrinkles or veins that are roughly the same color or paler than the cap surface.[8] Some variation in color has been observed depending on the collection location. For example, specimens found in Alaska are more likely to be jet-black in color with a dark gray underside.[9]

Fruiting bodies may be up to 15 cm (5.9 in) high (including the stem) and 10 cm (3.9 in) wide. Occasionally, much larger clusters of fused mushrooms are found, up to a meter in diameter.[10] The stem is dark purplish-black with a smooth (glabrous) and dry surface; the stems are often fused at the base. The stem is typically 1.5–2 cm (0.6–0.8 in) wide and up to 5 cm (2.0 in) long. The flesh is dark violet, soft but breaking easily. The spore deposit is white.[11]

Microscopic characteristics

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A fungus made of two dark brown funnel-shaped shapes with black rims, joined at a common base, surrounded by green moss
Craterellus cornucopioides, a lookalike species

The spores are roughly spherical to broadly ellipsoid in shape, covered with small wart-like projections (tubercules), and have dimensions of 6–8.5 by 5.5–8 μm.[11] Viewed microscopically, they are hyaline, meaning they appear translucent or colorless. Chemical tests may also be used to help distinguish the spores: in the presence of potassium hydroxide (KOH), the spores turn slightly green; the spores are not amyloid, meaning they do not take iodine when treated with Melzer's reagent; and the spores are acyanophilous, meaning they do not readily absorb methyl blue stain. The cystidia that comprise the hymenium are filamentous and 3–4 μm wide by 28–40 μm long. The outer tissue layer of the cap—the cuticle, or pileipellis—is made of interwoven hyphae, and stains olive-green in KOH. Clamp connections are present, but not at all the cell partitions.[12] The basidia, the spore-bearing cells, are 32–38 by 5–6 μm and four-spored.[5]

Similar species

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The horn-of-plenty mushroom (Craterellus cornucopioides) also has a blackish fruit body and a smooth hymenium, but is distinguished from P. multiplex by its thin flesh, a trumpet- or tubular-shaped fruit body (rather than fan- or spoon-shaped), and grey to black colors. A closely related species, the fragrant chanterelle (Cantharellus odoratus), also tends to grow in dense clusters, but it is orange rather than blue.[13] Craterellus caeruleofuscus does not form compound clusters, and is not restricted to coniferous forests. The pig's ear Gomphus, species Gomphus clavatus, is similar in shape and form but fleshier, and light violet to pink.[14]

Other species of Polyozellus are easy to mistake for P. multiplex, as prior to 2018, the genus was thought to be composed of only one species, but is now split into 5 species.[2] Species are mainly distinguished by location, with P. multiplex only being confirmed on the Eastern coast.[2] Other species like P. astrolazulinus, P. mariae, and P. marimargaretae have also been identified on the East coast and therefore identification may be more difficult in regions of overlap.

Habitat and distribution

[edit]
Polyozellus grows in a mycorrhizal association with conifers like spruce (example left) and fir (right).

Polyozellus multiplex is an ectomycorrhizal species, meaning that the hyphae of the fungus grow in a mutualistic association with the roots of plants, but the fungal hyphae generally do not penetrate the cells of the plant's roots.[15][16] The species grows in coniferous woods under spruce and fir,[13] and more frequently at higher elevations.[17] It is most often encountered in summer and fall.[12]

This species is northern and alpine in distribution, and rarely encountered. Collections have been made in the United States (including Maine, Oregon, Colorado, New Mexico, and Alaska), Canada (Quebec and British Columbia),[18][5][8][12] China,[19] Japan, and Korea. In North America, collections are still being re-catalogued to reflect the separation of the 5 species of Polyozellus. The disjunct distribution of this species in North America and East Asia has been noted to occur in a number of other fungal species as well.[20] P. multiplex is also found in the Queen Charlotte Islands, where it is commercially harvested.[21]

Uses

[edit]

Edibility

[edit]

Polyozellus multiplex is edible,[22] and is collected for sale in Asian countries such as Korea, Japan, and China.[19] In North America, it is sometimes collected recreationally[23] and commercially.[24] The taste is described as mild, and the odor as mild or aromatic.[25] Mycologist David Arora claims the flavor to be inferior to Craterellus. It can be prepared by cooking.[26] Fruit bodies may be preserved by drying.[27]

Bioactive compounds

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6,12-diacetoxy-2,3,8,9-tetrahydroxybenzo[1,2-b;4,5-b']bisbenzofuran
Skeletal formula of polyozellin

The compound polyozellin—a chemical which can be isolated and purified from P. multiplex—inhibits prolyl endopeptidase (PEP), an enzyme that has a role in processing proteins (specifically, amyloid precursor protein) in Alzheimer's disease. Chemicals that inhibit PEP have attracted research interest due to their potential therapeutic effects.[28] Further analyses of extracts from P. multiplex revealed similar dibenzofuranyl derivatives of polyozellin, each with different chemical properties, including kynapcin-12,[29] kynapcin-13 and -28,[30] and -24.[31] A total synthesis of kynapcin-24 was achieved in 2009.[32]

Antitumor properties

[edit]

Research conducted in 2003 suggests that extracts from P. multiplex may have suppressive effects on stomach cancer.[19][33] The study showed that feeding a low concentration (0.5% or 1%) of the mushroom extract enhanced the activities of the enzymes glutathione S-transferase and superoxide dismutase, and increased the abundance of the molecule glutathione. The extract also augmented the expression of the protein p53. All of these substances protect the human organism against cancer.[19] Additional studies reported in 2004 and 2006 attribute anti-tumor properties to polyozellin.[34][35]

References

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  1. ^ "Polyozellus multiplex (Underw.) Murrill 1910". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2011-04-04.
  2. ^ a b c Voitk, Andrus; Saar, Irja; Trudell, Steven; Spirin, Viacheslav; Beug, Michael; Kõljalg, Urmas (2017-11-02). "Polyozellus multiplex (Thelephorales) is a species complex containing four new species". Mycologia. 109 (6): 975–992. doi:10.1080/00275514.2017.1416246. ISSN 0027-5514. PMID 29494282. S2CID 4149082.
  3. ^ Homola, Richard L. (1993). "Cantharelloid Fungi of Maine". Maine Naturalist. 1 (2): 5–12. doi:10.2307/3858219. ISSN 1063-3626. JSTOR 3858219.
  4. ^ Shope, P. F. (1938). "Further Notes on Cantharellus multiplex". Mycologia. 30 (4): 372–374. doi:10.2307/3754462. ISSN 0027-5514. JSTOR 3754462.
  5. ^ a b c Smith, Alexander H.; Morse, Elizabeth E. (1947). "The Genus Cantharellus in the Western United States". Mycologia. 39 (5): 497–534. doi:10.2307/3755192. ISSN 0027-5514. JSTOR 3755192. PMID 20264537.
  6. ^ McKnight, Kent H. (1987). A field guide to mushrooms, North America. Vera B. McKnight, National Audubon Society, National Wildlife Federation. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-42101-2. OCLC 14586860.
  7. ^ Underwood, Lucien M. (1899). "A New Cantharellus from Maine". Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 26 (5): 254–255. doi:10.2307/2477751. ISSN 0040-9618. JSTOR 2477751.
  8. ^ a b Arora, David (1986). Mushrooms demystified : a comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi (2nd ed.). Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 0-89815-170-8. OCLC 13702933.
  9. ^ Arora, David (1991). All that the rain promises, and more ... : a hip pocket guide to Western mushrooms (First ed.). Berkeley. ISBN 0-89815-388-3. OCLC 21563535.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  10. ^ Fischer, David W. (1992). Edible wild mushrooms of North America : a field-to-kitchen guide. Alan E. Bessette (1st ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-72079-3. OCLC 24066185.
  11. ^ a b "Polyozellus multiplex (MushroomExpert.Com)". www.mushroomexpert.com. Retrieved 2022-10-09.
  12. ^ a b c Bigelow, Howard E. (1978). "The Cantharelloid Fungi of New England and Adjacent Areas". Mycologia. 70 (4): 707–756. doi:10.2307/3759354. ISSN 0027-5514. JSTOR 3759354.
  13. ^ a b Bessette, Alan (1987). Mushrooms : a quick reference guide to mushrooms of North America. Walter J. Sundberg. New York: Collier Books. ISBN 0-02-063690-3. OCLC 15628833.
  14. ^ Pilz et al., p. 17.
  15. ^ Stamets, Paul (2005). Mycelium running : how mushrooms can help save the world. Berkeley, Calif.: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 1-58008-579-2. OCLC 60603170.
  16. ^ Lee, Sang-Sun; Kim, Dong-Hun; Chung, Hung-Chae (March 2000). "Ectomycorrhizal Roots Collected from the Bases of the four Edible Basidiocarps Around Mt. Wol Ak". Mycobiology. 28 (1): 27–32. doi:10.1080/12298093.2000.12015718. ISSN 1229-8093. S2CID 90847842.
  17. ^ McKenny, Margaret; Stuntz, Daniel E.; Ammirati, Joseph F. (1987). The new savory wild mushroom (3rd ed.). Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-96491-X. OCLC 14964464.
  18. ^ Mounce, Irene; Jackson, Henry A. C. (1937). "Two Canadian Collections of Cantharellus Multiplex". Mycologia. 29 (3): 286–288. doi:10.2307/3754283. ISSN 0027-5514. JSTOR 3754283.
  19. ^ a b c d Lee, In-Seon; Nishikawa, Akiyoshi (2003-11-07). "Polyozellus multiplex, a Korean wild mushroom, as a potent chemopreventive agent against stomach cancer". Life Sciences. 73 (25): 3225–3234. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2003.06.006. ISSN 0024-3205. PMID 14561527.
  20. ^ Jianping Xu, ed. (2005). Evolutionary genetics of fungi. Wymondham: Horizon Bioscience. ISBN 1-904933-15-7. OCLC 60795044.
  21. ^ "Fungi of Haida Gwaii". ibis.geog.ubc.ca. Retrieved 2022-10-09.
  22. ^ Miller, Orson K. (2006). North American mushrooms : a field guide to edible and inedible fungi. Hope Miller (1st ed.). Guilford, Conn.: Falcon Guide. ISBN 0-7627-3109-5. OCLC 62282438.
  23. ^ Castellano, M.A.; O'Dell, T. (1997). "Management Recommendations for Survey and Management. Fungi". Retrieved 2022-10-09.
  24. ^ Berch, Shannon Marie (2003). Commercially important wild mushrooms and fungi of British Columbia : what the buyers are buying. Wendy Cocksedge, British Columbia. Forest Science Program. Victoria, BC: British Columbia Ministry of Forests Forest Science Program. ISBN 0-7726-4932-4. OCLC 52031097.
  25. ^ Tylutki, Edmund E. (1979). Mushrooms of Idaho and the Pacific Northwest. Moscow, Idaho: University Press of Idaho. ISBN 0-89301-062-6. OCLC 6485548.
  26. ^ Meuninck, Jim (2017). Foraging Mushrooms Oregon: Finding, Identifying, and Preparing Edible Wild Mushrooms. Falcon Guides. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-4930-2669-2.
  27. ^ Fischer, David W. (1992). Edible wild mushrooms of North America : a field-to-kitchen guide. Alan E. Bessette (1st ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-72079-3. OCLC 24066185.
  28. ^ Hwang, J. S.; Song, K. S.; Kim, W. G.; Lee, T. H.; Koshino, H.; Yoo, I. D. (September 1997). "Polyozellin, a new inhibitor of prolyl endopeptidase from Polyozellus multiplex". The Journal of Antibiotics. 50 (9): 773–777. doi:10.7164/antibiotics.50.773. ISSN 0021-8820. PMID 9360624.
  29. ^ Lee, H. J.; Rhee, I. K.; Lee, K. B.; Yoo, I. D.; Song, K. S. (July 2000). "Kynapcin-12, a new p-terphenyl derivative from Polyozellus multiplex, inhibits prolyl endopeptidase". The Journal of Antibiotics. 53 (7): 714–719. doi:10.7164/antibiotics.53.714. ISSN 0021-8820. PMID 10994814.
  30. ^ Kim, Sang-In; Park, In-Hye; Song, Kyung-Sik (July 2002). "kynapcin-13 and -28, new benzofuran prolyl endopeptidase inhibitors from polyozellus multiplex". The Journal of Antibiotics. 55 (7): 623–628. doi:10.7164/antibiotics.55.623. ISSN 0021-8820. PMID 12243451.
  31. ^ Song, Kyung-Sik; Raskin, Ilya (January 2002). "A prolyl endopeptidase-inhibiting benzofuran dimer from Polyozellus multiflex". Journal of Natural Products. 65 (1): 76–78. doi:10.1021/np010194b. ISSN 0163-3864. PMID 11809072.
  32. ^ Yang, Ling-Yi; Chang, Chia-Fu; Huang, Yu-Chao; Lee, Yean-Jang; Hu, Chao-Chin; Tseng, Tsui-Hwa (April 2009). "The First Total Synthesis of Kynapcin-24 by Palladium Catalysis". Synthesis. 2009 (7): 1175–1179. doi:10.1055/s-0028-1087998. ISSN 0039-7881.
  33. ^ Lull, Cristina; Wichers, Harry J.; Savelkoul, Huub F. J. (2005-06-09). "Antiinflammatory and immunomodulating properties of fungal metabolites". Mediators of Inflammation. 2005 (2): 63–80. doi:10.1155/MI.2005.63. ISSN 0962-9351. PMC 1160565. PMID 16030389.
  34. ^ Kim, Jeong Hyun; Lee, Jeong Soon; Song, Kyung-Sik; Kwon, Chong-Suk; Kim, Young Kyoon; Kim, Jong-Sang (2004-02-11). "Polyozellin isolated from Polyozellus multiplex induces phase 2 enzymes in mouse hepatoma cells and differentiation in human myeloid leukaemic cell lines". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 52 (3): 451–455. doi:10.1021/jf034748n. ISSN 0021-8561. PMID 14759131.
  35. ^ Jin, Xing Yu; Lee, Sung Hee; Kim, Ji Yeong; Zhao, Yu-Zhe; Park, Eun-Jeon; Lee, Bok-Soo; Nan, Ji-Xing; Song, Kyung-Sik; Ko, Geonil; Sohn, Dong Hwan (July 2006). "Polyozellin inhibits nitric oxide production by down-regulating LPS-induced activity of NF-kappaB and SAPK/JNK in RAW 264.7 cells". Planta Medica. 72 (9): 857–859. doi:10.1055/s-2006-946640. ISSN 0032-0943. PMID 16783701. S2CID 260278806.
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