User:Anthropology Class 205/sandbox
(entire section to be added to Balinese People article)
Water Temples (Pura Tirta)
Wet-rice agriculture is a mainstay of Balinese food production. This system of agriculture is extremely water-intensive, and requires a substantial network of irrigation to be effective as a subsistence strategy in Bali.[1]A system of irrigation networks (subaks) exists to redistribute access to water in Bali. This network of both underground tunnels (weirs) and canals diverts water from natural water sources into the wet-rice cultivation fields utilized by Balinese farmers to grow their staple crop.[2]
The system of cooperative water redistribution is tied to religious and cultural practices among the Balinese, and represents an economic system based on mutual obligation, and managed by the personnel of the water temples (Pura Tirta). Religious officials from these water temples exert spiritual and cultural pressure on the partcipants in this system, and ensure its continuation.[3] These water temples are largely located at loci of the irrigation networks, and manage distribution of water from the mountainous water sources of the island to lowland areas where water is too scarce for natural cultivation of rice.[4]
There is evidence this system developed as early as the 11th century CE, and has been in continuous use since that time.[5] Genetic evidence indicates that this system spread along kinship lines as the original farming villagers of Bali spread from areas where wet-rice farming originated to less climatically favorable areas of the island.[2] The cultural prestige of certain Pura Titra largely correlates to their position within the subak system, with temples located at major water sources having significant cultural influence. Royalty have associated themselves with major temples of this type, to link their own prestiege with that of the Pura Titra, and have taken part in the operations of water temples as a means of gaining influence in society. [6]
This system of physical infrastructure represents a durable network of belief which encourages its continuation by the people who participate, and provides a leveling mechanism where people who would otherwise be incapable of participating in wet rice agriculture to take part in the same subsistence activities as those who live in regions more naturally supportive of water-intensive crop growth.
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- ^ Falvo, Daniel (2000). "On Modeling Balinese Water Temple Networks as Complex Adaptive Systems". Human Ecology. 28: 641–649 – via JSTOR.
- ^ a b Lansing, Stephen (2009). "A Robust Budding Model of Balinese Water Temple Networks". World Archaeology. 41: 112–133 – via JSTOR.
- ^ Zurick, David (2002). "Water Temples of Bali". American Geographical Society’s Focus on Geography. 47: 1 – via EBSCO.
- ^ Lansing1 Kremer2, Stephen1 James2 (1993). "Emergent Properties of Balinese Water Temple Networks: Coadaptation on a Rugged Fitness Landscape". American Anthropologist. 95: 97–114 – via JSTOR.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Lansing, Stephen (2012). "The Functional Role of Balinese Water Temples: A Response to Critics". Human Ecology. 40: 453–67 – via Google Scholar.
- ^ Hauser-Schäublin, Brigitta (2005). "Temple and King: Resource Management, Rituals and Redistribution in Early Bali". The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute. 11 (4): 747–771. ISSN 1359-0987.