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Wireless power transfer

Wireless energy transmission
Wireless energy transmission 2

Disturbed charge of ground and air method

Tesla claimed the principle of resonant capacitive coupling was applicable to the atmospheric conduction wireless transmission method.

“In some cases when small amounts of energy are required the high elevation of the terminals, and more particularly of the receiving-terminal [...], may not be necessary, since, especially when the frequency of the currents is very high, a sufficient amount of energy may be collected at that terminal by electrostatic induction from the upper air strata, which are rendered conducting by the active terminal of the transmitter or through which the currents from the same are conveyed."

Systems of Transmission of Electrical Energy, U.S. Patent No. 645,576, March 20, 1900.}

Tesla's patented Single wire with Earth return electrical power transmission system relies on current flowing through the earth plus a single wire insulated from the earth to complete the circuit.  

[In emergencies, modern-day high-voltage direct current power transmission systems can also operate in the 'single wire with earth return' mode.]

Elimination of the raised insulated wire, and transmission of high-potential, high-frequency alternating current through the earth with an atmospheric return circuit was investigated by Tesla as a method of true wireless electrical power transmission.

The transmission of electrical energy through the earth alone, eliminating the second conductor was also investigated. 

Modeling the earth as a electrically conducting buss bar with a large cross sectional area relative to its length, Tesla believed that Low frequency alternating current could be transmitted from one end of the inhomogeneous earth to the other with low loss.

It has been analytically demonstrated that the net resistance between earth antipodes is considerably less than 1 ohm. ["Nikola Tesla and the Diameter of the Earth: A Discussion of One of the Many Modes of Operation of the Wardenclyffe Tower," K. L. Corum and J. F. Corum, Ph.D. 1996]

The electrical displacement takes place predominantly by electrical conduction through the oceans, and metallic ore bodies and similar subsurface structures.  The electrical displacement is also by means of electrostatic induction through the more dielectric regions such as quartz deposits and other non-conducting minerals.

Wait, James R., The Ancient and Modern History of EM Ground-Wave Propagation," IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 40, No. 5, October 1998.

Tesla believed that alternating current can be transmitted through atmospheric strata having a barometric pressure of less than 135 millimeters of mercury.

SYSTEM OF TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY, Sept. 2, 1897, U.S. Patent No. 645,576, Mar. 20, 1900.

According to his theory, current flows by means of electrostatic induction through the lower atmosphere up to about two or three miles above the plants (this is the middle part in a three-space model), and the flow of ions, that is to say, electrical conduction through the ionized region above three miles.  

Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony and Transmission of Power

"I have to say here that when I filed the applications of September 2, 1897, for the transmission of energy in which this method was disclosed, it was already clear to me that I did not need to have terminals at such high elevation, but I never have, above my signature, announced anything that I did not prove first.  That is the reason why no statement of mine was ever contradicted, and I do not think it will be, because whenever I publish something I go through it first by experiment, then from experiment I calculate, and when I have the theory and practice meet I announce the results."

"At that time I was absolutely sure that I could put up a commercial plant, if I could do nothing else but what I had done in my laboratory on Houston Street; but I had already calculated and found that I did not need great heights to apply this method.  My patent says that I break down the atmosphere "at or near" the terminal.  If my conducting atmosphere is 2 or 3 miles above the plant, I consider this very near the terminal as compared to the distance of my receiving terminal, which may be across the Pacific.  That is simply an expression. . . ."

Tesla investigated the use of intense vertical beams of ultraviolet light to ionize the atmospheric gasses directly above the two elevated terminals in order to create plasma high-voltage electrical transmission lines leading up to the conducting atmospheric strata.  The end result he sought to achieve was a flow electrical current between the two elevated terminals by a path up to and through the troposphere and back down to the other facility.

Henry Bradford, "Nikola Tesla On Wireless Energy Transmission"

Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony and Transmission of Power

" . . . I saw that I would be able to transmit power provided I could construct a certain apparatus -- and I have, as I will show you later.  I have constructed and patented a form of apparatus which, with a moderate elevation of a few hundred feet, can break the air stratum down.  You will then see something like an aurora borealis across the sky, and the energy will go to the distant place."

 "That is very simple.  An apparatus which permits displacing a certain quantity of electricity in the terminal – we shall say so many units -- will produce an electric potential at a distance of 5 miles, and the fall of electric potential per centimeter will be equal to the quantity of electricity divided by the square of the distance."

"Now, I have satisfied myself that I can construct plants in which I may produce, per kilometer of the atmosphere, electric differences of potential of something like 50,000 or 60,000 volts, and at 50,000 or 60,000 volts that atmosphere must break down and will become conductive."

"So that, when I had explained this principle to Lord Kelvin, he became absolutely convinced that I could do it; but Helmholtz was convinced from the very beginning that I could do it.  It took argumentation, however, and demonstration by experiments, to convince Lord Kelvin."

Rauscher, Elizabeth A., Electromagnetic Phenomena in Complex Geometries and Nonlinear Phenomena, Non-Hertzian Waves and Magnetic Monopoles, Tesla Book Company.

APPARATUS FOR TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY, September 2, 1897, U.S. Patent No. 649,621, May 15, 1900

Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony and Transmission of Power, pp. 126, 127.

Terrestrial transmission line with atmospheric return

Tesla believed he discovered that electrical energy can be transmitted through the earth and the atmosphere.  In the course of his research he successfully lit lamps at moderate distances and was able to detect the transmitted energy at much greater distances. The Wardenclyffe Tower project was a commercial venture for trans-Atlantic wireless telephony and proof-of-concept demonstrations of global wireless power transmission.  The facility was not completed because of insufficient funding.

"The Future of the Wireless Art," Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony, Walter W. Massie & Charles R. Underhill, 1908, pp. 67-71

"It is intended to give practical demonstrations of these principles with the plant illustrated.  As soon as completed, it will be possible for a business man in New York to dictate instructions, and have them instantly appear in type at his office in London or elsewhere.  He will be able to call up, from his desk, and talk to any telephone subscriber on the globe, without any change whatever in the existing equipment.  An inexpensive instrument, not bigger than a watch, will enable its bearer to hear anywhere, on sea or land, music or song, the speech of a political leader, the address of an eminent man of science, or the sermon of an eloquent clergyman, delivered in some other place, however distant.  In the same manner any picture, character, drawing, or print can be transferred from one to another place.  Millions of such instruments can be operated from but one plant of this kind.  More important than all of this, however, will be the transmission of power, without wires, which will be shown on a scale large enough to carry conviction."

Earth is a naturally conducting body and forms one conductor of the system.  A second path is established through the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere starting at an elevation of approximately {{convert|4.5|miles|km."

ref name="Tesla, Nikola 1897"
Tesla, Nikola, Systems of Transmission of Electrical Energy, Sept. 2, 1897, U.S. Patent No. 645,576, Mar. 20, 1900.

A global system for "the transmission of electrical energy without wires" called the World Wireless System, dependant upon the high electrical conductivity of plasma and the high electrical conductivity of the earth, was proposed by Tesla as early as 1904.

ref name=Tesla Electrical world
{{cite web|url=http://www.tfcbooks.com/tesla/1904-03-05.htm |title=The Transmission of Electrical Energy Without Wires," Electrical World, March 5, 1904 |publisher=21st Century Books |date=1904-03-05 |accessdate=2009-06-04"

"The earth is 4,000 miles radius.  Around this conducting earth is an atmosphere.  The earth is a conductor; the atmosphere above is a conductor, only there is a little stratum between the conducting atmosphere and the conducting earth which is insulating. . . . Now, you realize right away that if you set up differences of potential at one point, say, you will create in the media corresponding fluctuations of potential.  But, since the distance from the earth's surface to the conducting atmosphere is minute, as compared with the distance of the receiver at 4,000 miles, say, you can readily see that the energy cannot travel along this curve and get there, but will be immediately transformed into conduction currents, and these currents will travel like currents over a wire with a return.  The energy will be recovered in the circuit, not by a beam that passes along this curve and is reflected and absorbed, . . . but it will travel by conduction and will be recovered in this way."

Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony and Transmission of Power, pp. 128-130.]"

Terrestrial single-conductor surface wave transmission line

{{main|Single-wire transmission line"

The fundamental earth resonance frequency is claimed to be approximately 11.78 Hz.

Art of Transmitting Electrical Energy Through the Natural Mediums, May 16, 1900, U.S. Patent No. 787,412, Apr. 18, 1905.

With the earth resonance method some harmonic of this fundamental frequency is used.

"Nikola Tesla and the Diameter of the Earth : A Discussion of One of the Many Modes of Operation of the Wardenclyffe Tower," K. L. Corum and J. F. Corum, Ph.D. 1996.

"I would say that the frequency should be smaller then twenty thousand per second, through shorter waves might be practicable"

Art of Transmitting Electrical Energy Through the Natural Mediums, April 17, 1906, Canadian Patent No. 142,352, August 13, 1912.

and on the low end, "a frequency of nine hundred and twenty-five per second" is used, "when it is indispensable to operate motors of the ordinary kind."

ref name="Tesla, Nikola 1897"

The propagation of electrical energy is by the TM00 mode 

Elmore, Glenn, "Introduction to the Propagating Wave on a Single Conductor," Corridor Systems Inc., 2009.

Observations have been made that may be inconsistent with a basic tenet of physics related to the scalar derivatives of the electromagnetic potentials 

Meyl, Konstantin, "Wireless Tesla Transponder : Field-physical basis for electrically coupled bidirectional far range transponders according to the invention of Nikola Tesla," Furtwangen University, Germany

Meyl, Konstantin, Scalar Waves : Theory and Experiments

van Vlaenderen, Koen J., "A Generalization of Classical Electrodynamics for the Prediction of Scalar Field Effects," Institute for Basic Research, 2008
 
C. Monstein and J.P Wesley, Observation of scalar longitudinal electrodynamic waves, Europhysics Letters 59 (2002), no. 4, 514-520.

Chubykalo, Andrew E., Rumen I. Tzontchev and Juan M. Rivera-Juárez, Coulomb interaction does not spread instantaniously, Hadrionic Journal 23 (2000), 401-424.

Dea, Jack Y., "Scalar Fields: Their Prediction from Classical Electromagnetism and Interpretation from Quantum Mechanics, 1985.

Bearden, T. E., Solutions to Tesla's Secrets and the Soviet Tesla Weapons, 1981; John T. Ratzlaff, Reference Articles for Solutions to Tesla's Secrets.

that are presently considered to be nonphysical.

Electromagnetic fields, waves and numerical methods By Zijad Haznadar, Željko Štih. Page 61.

Parameters

An important parameter that determines the type of wave is the frequency f in hertz of the oscillations. The frequency determines the wavelength λ = c/f of the waves which carry the energy across the gap, where c is the velocity of light. Two additional parameters instrumental in determining the type of wave are the time-variation of the wave (given by its angular frequency ω) and the spatial variation of the wave (given by its wave vector kx). Purely transverse electromagnetic space waves, with synchronized electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to the direction of propagation, can only exist for ω > ωp (the plasma frequency). ωp is the resonant frequency of free electrons in the conductor or conductors in response to an electrical excitation. For ω < ωp, the wave-vector becomes imaginary, giving an exponentially decaying surface wave instead of a propagating space wave. The field intensity of the surface wave is at a maximum at the earth-atmosphere interface and exponentially decays away from the surface. Both of these electromagnetic waves can be mathematically described by solving Maxwell's equations at a metal-dielectric interface.

Patents

• SYSTEM OF ELECTRIC LIGHTING, April 25, 1891, U.S. patent 454,622, June 23, 1891.
• MEANS FOR GENERATING ELECTRIC CURRENTS, August 2, 1893, U.S. patent 514,168, February 6, 1894.
• ELECTRICAL TRANSFORMER, March 20, 1897, U.S. patent 593,138, November 2, 1897.
• METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR CONTROLLING MECHANISM OF MOVING VESSEL OR VEHICLES, July 1, 1898, U.S. patent 613,809 November 8, 1898.
• SYSTEM OF TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY, September 2, 1897, U.S. patent 645,576, March 20, 1900.
• APPARATUS FOR TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY, September 2, 1897, U.S. patent 649,621, May 15, 1900.
• METHOD OF INTENSIFYING AND UTILIZING EFFECTS TRANSMITTED THROUGH NATURAL MEDIA, June 24, 1899, U.S. patent 685,953, November 5, 1901.
• METHOD OF UTILIZING EFFECTS TRANSMITTED THROUGH NATURAL MEDIA, August 1, 1899, U.S. patent 685,954, November 5, 1901.
• APPARATUS FOR UTILIZING EFFECTS TRANSMITTED FROM A DISTANCE TO A RECEIVING DEVICE THROUGH NATURAL MEDIA, June 24, 1899, U.S. patent 685,955, November 5, 1901.
• APPARATUS FOR UTILIZING EFFECTS TRANSMITTED THROUGH NATURAL MEDIA, March 21, 1900, U.S. patent 685,956, November 5, 1901.
• METHOD OF SIGNALING, July 16, 1900, U.S. patent 723,188, March 17, 1903.
• SYSTEM OF SIGNALING, July 16, 1900, U.S. patent 725,605, April 14, 1903.
• ART OF TRANSMITTING ELECTRICAL ENERGY THROUGH THE NATURAL MEDIUMS, May 16, 1900, U.S. patent 787,412, April 18, 1905.
• ART OF TRANSMITTING ELECTRICAL ENERGY THROUGH THE NATURAL MEDIUMS, April 17, 1906, Canadian Patent 142,352, August 13, 1912.
• APPARATUS FOR TRANSMITTING ELECTRICAL ENERGY, January 18, 1902, U.S. patent 1,119,732, December 1, 1914.

Dead-end technology

Technology that was developed but never gained approval or popularity.

Directivity

Wire antennas, such as dipoles or loops, produce an antenna pattern that is uniform in one dimension and has a main lobe and sidelobes in the other. An infinitesimal dipole or loop has a directivity of 1.5, a beamwidth of 90°, and an effective aperture of 3 λ2/8 π. The radiation pattern is symmetrical around the dipole or the normal to the loop. The lobe structure in the radiation pattern is in the plane containing the dipole or the normal to the loop. [Crane, Robert K., Propagation Handbook for Wireless Communication System Design, CRC PRESS, Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C., ©2003 CRC Press LLC.

The “capacitor plates” can be actual conductors or simply the wire equivalent. The fields radiated by the radial currents tend to cancel each other in the far field so that the far fields of the capacitor plate antenna can be approximated by the infinitesimal dipole.

Directivity references

• Antenna Tutorial
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, “The IEEE standard dictionary of electrical and electronics terms”; 6th ed. New York, N.Y., Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, c1997. IEEE Std 100-1996. ISBN 1-55937-833-6 [ed. Standards Coordinating Committee 10, Terms and Definitions; Jane Radatz, (chair)]
• Rane Professional Audio Reference Home
• Coleman, Christopher (2004). "Basic Concepts". An Introduction to Radio Frequency Engineering. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-83481-3.
• Sun, Tianjia; Xie, Xiang; Zhihua, Wang (2013). Wireless Power Transfer for Medical Microsystems. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-1461477020.</ref>

Surface wave related journals and papers

Zenneck, Sommerfeld, and Norton

• J. Zenneck, (translators: P. Blanchin, G. Guérard, É. Picot), "Précis de télégraphie sans fil : complément de l'ouvrage : Les oscillations électromagnétiques et la télégraphie sans fil", Paris : Gauthier-Villars, 1911. viii, 385 p. : ill. ; 26 cm. (Tr. Precisions of wireless telegraphy: complement of the work: Electromagnetic oscillations and wireless telegraphy)
• J. Zenneck, "Über die Fortpflanzung ebener elektromagnetischer Wellen längs einer ebenen Leiterfläche und ihre Beziehung zur drahtlosen Telegraphie", Ann. der Physik, vol. 23, pp. 846–866, Sept. 1907. (Tr. "About the propagation of electromagnetic plane waves along a conductor plane and their relationship to wireless telegraphy" )
• J. Zenneck, "Elektromagnetische Schwingungen und drahtlose Telegraphie", gart, F. Enke, 1905. xxvii, 1019 p. : ill. ; 24 cm. (Tr. "Electromagnetic oscillations and wireless telegraphy.")
• J. Zenneck, (translator: A.E. Seelig) "Wireless telegraphy,", New York [etc.] McGraw-Hill Book Company, inc., 1st ed. 1915. xx, 443 p. illus., diagrs. 24 cm. LCCN 15024534 (ed. "Bibliography and notes on theory" p. 408-428.)
• A. Sommerfeld, "Über die Fortpflanzung elektrodynamischer Wellen an längs eines Drahtes", Ann. der Physik und Chemie, vol. 67, pp. 233–290, Dec 1899. (Tr. Propagation of electro-dynamic waves along a cylindric conductor)
• A. Sommerfeld, "Über die Ausbreitlung der Wellen in der drahtlosen Telegraphie", Annalen der Physik, Vol. 28, March, 1909, pp. 665-736. (Tr. About the Propagation of waves in wireless telegraphy)
• A. Sommerfeld, "Propagation of waves in wireless telegraphy", Ann. Phys., vol. 81, pp. 1367–1153, 1926.
• K. A. Norton, "The propagation of radio waves over the surface of the earth and in the upper atmosphere", Proc. IRE, vol. 24, pp. 1367–1387, 1936.
• K. A. Norton, "The calculations of ground wave field intensity over a finitely conducting spherical earth", Proc. IRE, vol. 29, pp. 623–639, 1941.

Wait

• Wait, J. R., "Lateral Waves and the Pioneering Research of the Late Kenneth A Norton".
• Wait, J. R., and D. A. Hill, "Excitation of the HF surface wave by vertical and horizontal apertures". Radio Science, 14, 1979, pp 767-780.
• Wait, J. R., and D. A. Hill, "Excitation of the Zenneck surface by a vertical aperture", Radio Science, 13, 1978, pp. 967-977.
• Wait, J. R., "A note on surface waves and ground waves", IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, Nov 1965. Vol. 13, Issue 6, pg 996- 997 ISSN 0096-1973
• Wait, J. R., "The ancient and modern history of EM ground-wave propagation". IEEE Antennas Propagat. Mag., vol. 40, pp. 7–24, Oct. 1998.
• Wait, J. R., "Appendix C: On the theory of ground wave propagation over a slightly roughned curved earth", Electromagnetic Probing in Geophysics. Boulder, CO., Golem, 1971, pp. 37–381.
• Wait, J. R., "Electromagnetic surface waves", Advances in Radio Research, 1, New York, Academic Press, 1964, pp. 157-219.

Others

• R. E. Collin, "Hertzian Dipole Radiating Over a Lossy Earth or Sea: Some Early and Late 20th-Century Controversies", Antennas and Propagation Magazine, 46, 2004, pp. 64-79.
• F. J. Zucker, "Surface wave antennas and surface wave excited arrays", Antenna Engineering Handbook, 2nd ed., R. C. Johnson and H. Jasik, Eds. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984.
• Hill, D. and J.R Wait, "Excitation of the Zenneck Surface Wave by a Vertical Aperture", Radio Science, Vol. 13, No. 6, November–December, 1978, pp. 969-977.
• Yu. V. Kistovich, "Possibility of Observing Zenneck Surface Waves in Radiation from a Source with a Small Vertical Aperture", Soviet Physics Technical Physics, Vol. 34, No.4, April, 1989, pp. 391-394.
• V. I. Baĭbakov, V. N. Datsko, Yu. V. Kistovich, "Experimental discovery of Zenneck's surface electromagnetic waves", Sov Phys Uspekhi, 1989, 32 (4), 378-379.
• Corum, K. L. and J. F. Corum, "The Zenneck Surface Wave", Nikola Tesla, Lightning Observations, and Stationary Waves, Appendix II. 1994.
• M. J. King and J. C. Wiltse, "Surface-Wave Propagation on Coated or Uncoated Metal Wires at Millimeter Wavelengths". J. Appl. Phys., vol. 21, pp. 1119–1128; November,
• Georg Goubau, "Surface waves and their application to transmission lines", J. Appl. Phys., vol. 21, pp. 1119–1128; November,1950.
• M. J. King and J. C. Wiltse, "Surface-Wave Propagation on a Dielectric Rod of Electric Cross-Section." Electronic Communications, Inc., Tirnonium: kld. Sci. Rept.'No. 1, AFCKL Contract No. AF 19(601)-5475; August, 1960.
• T. Kahan and G. Eckart, "On the Electromagnetic Surface Wave of Sommerfeld", Phys. Rev. 76, 406–410 (1949).

Possible anomaly

Observations have been made that may be inconsistent with a basic tenet of physics related to the scalar derivatives of the electromagnetic potentials that are presently considered to be nonphysical.

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