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{{short description|Ancient expansion of agriculture}}

ja:インド太平洋を越えたja:オーストロネシア人の居住域の拡大[1]


遠く離れた土地へと移動をはじめた(en) 主要な人類の集団のひとつはオーストロネシア人で、インド太平洋の島々を海路づたいに開拓し、遅くとも5,500〜4,000 BP （紀元前3500〜2000年）に始まったと考えられる。早期のオーストロネシア人の移住にはアウトリガー船やカタマランに栽培化したり半家畜化したり、あるいは人間と共生する動植物も積み込み、島しょ東南アジア Maritime Southeast Asiaから近オセアニア Near Oceania(メラネシア)、さらに遠オセアニア Remote Oceania (ミクロネシアおよびポリネシア)、マダガスカル島、コモロ諸島へと渡り繁栄する支えになった[2][3]。

この一覧にはオーストロネシア人以前の人間の根源を仮想して動植物を加えてある。食糧作物や家畜動物の由来を太古中国にあった河姆渡と馬家浜文化に求め[4]、あわせて台湾、島しょ東南アジア Island Southeast Asia とニューギニア他で最初に栽培化・家畜化されたと考えられる種である[5][6]。これらの植物の一部は、特にポリネシアの移住の文脈で「カヌー植物」と呼ぶことがあり[7][8]、導入が有史時代に入る栽培植物は除外する。

植物

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以下の植物は、オーストロネシアの航海者が運んだ半野生種と物々交換に用いた品種である。学名（欧文）の後の丸カッコ内に英語の一般名を添える。

ククイ Aleurites moluccanus (candlenut)

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ククイ (Aleurites moluccanus) の葉と花、果実 (ja:マウイ島)

島しょ東南アジアの島で最初に栽培されたククイ (Aleurites moluccanus) の遺物はインドネシア東部のティモールとモロタイの考古学遺跡から出土しており、それぞれ年代分析により約13,000年 BPと11,000年 BPのものである [9]。スラウェシ島南部のトーリーン文化 Toalean の拠点から新石器時代 (今から3700年から2300年前) にさかのぼるククイ栽培の考古学的な証拠が発見された[10][11]。

この植物は初期のオーストロネシア航海者の手で太平洋諸島に広く導入され、火山性の高い島に帰化していく[12][13][14]。

バハ・リウライ祭のたいまつキャンドルトーチを準備する女性たち (東ティモール、バブロ Babulo)

Candlenut has a very wide range of uses and every part of the tree can be harvested. They were primarily cultivated for the high oil content in their nut kernels. They were used widely for illumination, prior to the introduction of other light sources, hence the name "candlenut". The kernels were skewered on coconut midribs that were then set alight. Each kernel takes about three minutes to burn and thus the series could act as a torch. This tradition of making candlenut torches exist in both Southeast Asia and Oceania. Candlenut oil extracted from the nuts can also be used directly in lamps. They can also be utilized in the production of soaps, ointments, and as preservatives for fishing gear. Other traditional uses include using the timber for making small canoes and carvings; the sap for varnish and resins; the nut shells for ornamentation (most notably as leis), fish-hooks, toys, and the production of black dyes; the bark for medicine and fiber; and so on. Some non-toxic varieties are also used as condiments or ingredients in the cuisines of Southeast Asia and the Pacific.[15]

The Proto-Malayo-Polynesian word for candlenut is reconstructed as *kamiri, with modern cognates including Hanunó'o, Iban, and Sundanese kamiri; Javanese and Malay kemiri; and Tetun kamii. However the Oceanian words for candlenut is believed to be derived instead from Proto-Austronesian *CuSuR which became Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *tuhuR, originally meaning "string together, as beads", referring to the construction of the candlenut torches. It became Proto-Eastern-Malayo-Polynesian and Proto-Oceanic *tuRi which is then reduplicated. Modern cognates including Fijian, Tongan, Rarotongan, and Niue tui-tui; and Hawaiian kui-kui or kukui.[16]

Alocasia macrorrhizos (giant taro)

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Giant taro (Alocasia macrorrhizos) plantation in Tongatapu, Tonga

The giant taro (Alocasia macrorrhizos) was originally domesticated in the Philippines, but are known from wild specimens to early Austronesians in Taiwan. From the Philippines, they spread outwards to the rest of Island Southeast Asia and eastward to Oceania where it became one of the staple crops of Pacific Islanders.[17][18] They are one of the four main species of aroids (taros) cultivated by Austronesians primarily as a source of starch, the others being Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Colocasia esculenta, and Cyrtosperma merkusii, each with multiple cultivated varieties. Their leaves and stems are also edible if cooked thoroughly, though this is rarely done for giant taro as it contains higher amounts of raphides which cause itching.[19][20]

The reconstructed word for giant taro in Proto-Austronesian is *biRaq, which became Proto-Oceanic *piRaq. Modern cognates for it in Island Southeast Asia and Micronesia include Rukai vi'a or bi'a; Ifugao bila; Ilocano, Cebuano, and Bikol biga; Tiruray bira; Ngaju biha; Malagasy via; Malay and Acehnese birah; Mongondow biga; Palauan bísə; Chamorro piga; Bima wia; Roti and Tetun fia; Asilulu hila; and Kowiai fira. In Oceania, cognates for it include Wuvulu and Aua pia; Motu and 'Are'are hira; Kilivila and Fijian via; and Hawaiian pia. Note that in some cases, the cognates have shifted to mean other types of taro.[16][17]

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (elephant foot yam)

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Elephant foot yam in Taman Negara, Malaysia

The elephant foot yam (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius) is used as food in Island Southeast Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia, and South Asia. Its origin and center of domestication was formerly considered to be India, where it is most widely utilized as a food resource in recent times. But a genetic study in 2017 has shown that Indian populations of elephant foot yams have lower genetic diversity than those in Island Southeast Asia, therefore it is now believed that elephant foot yams originated from Island Southeast Asia and spread westwards into Thailand and India, resulting in three independent domestication events. From Island Southeast Asia, they were also spread even further west into Madagascar, and eastwards to coastal New Guinea and Oceania by Austronesians. Though they may have spread south into Australia without human intervention.[21][22][23]

The elephant foot yam is one of the four main species of aroids (taros) cultivated by Austronesians primarily as a source of starch, the others being Alocasia macrorrhizos, Colocasia esculenta, and Cyrtosperma merkusii, each with multiple cultivated varieties. Elephant foot yam, however, is the least important among the four and was likely only eaten as a famine crop, since they contain more raphides that cause irritation if not cooked thoroughly.[22][20][24]

Artocarpus

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Numerous species of Artocarpus are traditionally cultivated or harvested from semi-domesticated or wild populations in Island Southeast Asia and Micronesia for food, timber, traditional medicine, and other uses. They include Artocarpus anisophyllus (entawak),[25] Artocarpus heterophyllus (jackfruit or nangka),[26] Artocarpus integer (cempedak),[27] Artocarpus lacucha (lakuch),[28] Artocarpus mariannensis (Marianas breadfruit),[29] Artocarpus odoratissimus (tarap or marang),[30] and Artocarpus treculianus (tipuho),[31] among many others. The most important species pertaining to the Austronesian expansion however, are Artocarpus camansi (breadnut or seeded breadfruit) and Artocarpus altilis (breadfruit).[32]

Cempedak (Artocarpus integer) in Malaysia

===={{anchor|Breadfruit}}''Artocarpus altilis'' (breadfruit)==== [[File:Rainforest Fatu Hiva.jpg|thumb|left|Breadfruit tree in [[Fatu-Hiva]], [[Marquesas Islands]]]] According to [[DNA fingerprinting]] studies, the wild seeded ancestor of ''Artocarpus altilis'' is the ''Artocarpus camansi'', which is native to [[New Guinea]], the [[Maluku Islands]], and the [[Philippines]]. ''A. camansi'' was domesticated and [[selectively bred]] in Polynesia, giving rise to the mostly seedless ''Artocarpus altilis''. Micronesian breadfruit also show evidence of [[Hybridisation (biology)|hybridization]] with the native ''Artocarpus mariannensis'', while most Polynesian and Melanesian cultivars do not. This indicates that Micronesia was initially colonized separately from Polynesia and Melanesia through two different migration events which later came into contact with each other in eastern Micronesia.<ref name="Ragone2006"/><ref name="zerega">{{cite journal|author1=Zerega, N. J. C. |author2=Ragone, D. |author3=Motley, T.J. |lastauthoramp=yes |year=2004|title=The complex origins of breadfruit (''Artocarpus altilis'', Moraceae): Implications for human migrations in Oceania|journal=American Journal of Botany|volume=91|issue=5|pages=760–766|doi=10.3732/ajb.91.5.760|pmid=21653430}}</ref><ref name="Matisoo-Smith2015">{{cite journal |last1=Matisoo-Smith |first1=Elizabeth A. |title=Tracking Austronesian expansion into the Pacific via the paper mulberry plant |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=3 November 2015 |volume=112 |issue=44 |pages=13432–13433 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1518576112|pmid=26499243 |pmc=4640783 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11213432M }}</ref> [[File:Artocarpus altilis.jpg|thumb|Breadfruit (''[[Artocarpus altilis]]'') in [[Hawaii]]]] The reconstructed [[Proto-Malayo-Polynesian]] word for breadfruit is ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Malayo-Polynesian/kuluʀ|*kuluʀ]]'', which became [[Proto-Oceanic]] ''*kulur'' and [[Proto-Polynesian]] ''*kulu''. Modern cognates include [[Malay language|Malay]] and [[Javanese language|Javanese]] ''kulur'' or ''kelur''; [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]] ''kulu''; [[Iban language|Iban]] ''kurur''; [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]] ''kulo'' or ''kolo''; [[Muna language|Muna]] ''kula''; [[Mussau language|Mussau]] ''ulu''; [[Kapingamarangi language|Kapingamarangi]] ''gulu''; [[Wayan Fijian language|Wayan Fijian]] ''kulu''; [[Emae language|Emae]] ''kuro''; [[Tuamotuan language|Tuamotuan]], [[Takuu language|Takuu]], and [[Rarotongan language|Rarotongan]] ''kuru''; [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]] ''ʻuru''; [[Samoan language|Samoan]] and [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] ''ʻulu''; and [[Māori language|Māori]] ''kuru''. Note that in Māori, ''kuru'' is only mentioned in tradition, but does not refer to the plant because breadfruit did not survive into [[Aotearoa]].<ref name="Osmond1998"/><ref name="temarareo2">{{cite web|url=http://www.temarareo.org/PPN-Kulu.html|title=*Kulu|work=Te Mära Reo: The Language Garden|publisher=Benton Family Trust|accessdate=15 January 2019}}</ref><ref name="McLean2014">{{cite book|first1=Mervyn|last1=McLean|title =Music, Lapita, and the Problem of Polynesian Origins|publisher = Polynesian Origins|series =|year =2014|isbn =9780473288730|url =http://polynesianorigins.org/chapter-11-food-plants/}}</ref><ref name="Blust1989">{{cite journal |last1=Blust |first1=Robert |title=Austronesian Etymologies: IV |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |date=1989 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=111–180 |doi=10.2307/3623057|jstor=3623057 }}</ref><ref name="Hull2000">{{cite journal |last1=Hull |first1=Geoffrey |title=Historical phonology of Tetum |journal=Studies in Languages and Cultures of East Timor |date=2000 |volume=3 |issue=2000 |pages=158–212 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316379707}}</ref> Also note that it is believed that breadfruit only reached western Island Southeast Asia (Java, Sumatra, Malay Peninsula) during the recent centuries, as a result of trade with the [[Maluku Islands]].<ref name="Blench2008-fruit"/> Another notable reconstructed word for breadfruit is Proto-Oceanic ''*maRi'' or ''*mai''. It is a common [[root (linguistics)|root]] for words for breadfruit in [[Micronesia]], northern and western [[New Guinea]], the [[Solomon Islands]], the [[Admiralty Islands]], [[St Matthias Islands]], [[New Caledonia]], and parts of the [[Central Pacific languages|Central Pacific]]. The term itself may have originally been for ''Artocarpus mariannensis'' instead of ''Artocarpus altilis''. Cognates include [[Pohnpeian language|Pohnpeian]], [[Mokil language|Mokil]], and [[Ngatik language|Ngatik]] ''māi''; [[Palauan language|Palauan]], [[Satawal language|Satawal]], and [[Tuvaluan language|Tuvaluan]] ''mai''; [[Puluwat language|Puluwat]] ''mais''; [[Yapese language|Yapese]] ''maiyah''; and [[Tongan language|Tongan]], [[Niuean language|Niuean]], and [[Marquesan language|Marquesan]] ''mei''.<ref name="Osmond1998"/><ref name="temarareo2"/><ref name="McLean2014"/> ===={{anchor|Jackfruit}}''Artocarpus heterophyllus'' (jackfruit)==== The jackfruit, (''[[Artocarpus heterophyllus]]'') was domesticated independently in [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]], as evidenced by the fact that the Southeast Asian names for the fruit are not derived from the [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] [[Root (linguistics)|roots]]. It was probably first domesticated by Austronesians in [[Java]] or the [[Malay Peninsula]]. The word for jackfruit in [[Proto-Western-Malayo-Polynesian]] is reconstructed as ''*laŋkaq''. Modern [[cognate]]s include [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Malay language|Malay]], [[Balinese language|Balinese]], and [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]] ''nangka''; [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], [[Pangasinan language|Pangasinan]], [[Bikol language|Bikol]] and [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]] ''langka''; [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]] ''lanka'' or ''nanka''; [[Kelabit language|Kelabit]] ''nakan''; [[Wolio language|Wolio]] ''nangke''; [[Ibaloi language|Ibaloi]] ''dangka''; and [[Lun Dayeh language|Lun Dayeh]] ''laka''. Note, however, that the fruit was only recently introduced to [[Guam]] via [[Filipino people|Filipino]] settlers when both were part of the [[Spanish East Indies|Spanish Empire]].<ref name="Blench2008-fruit">{{cite book|first1=Roger|last1=Blench|editor1-first=Toshiki|editor1-last=Osada|editor2-first=Akinori|editor2-last=Uesugi|title =Occasional Paper 4: Linguistics, Archaeology and the Human Past|chapter =A history of fruits on the Southeast Asian mainland|publisher =Indus Project|series =|year =2008|pages=115–137|isbn =9784902325331|chapter-url =http://www.rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/OP4_Blench%20Fruits%20paper%20offprint.pdf}}</ref><ref name="blusttrusell">{{cite journal |last1=Blust |first1=Robert |last2=Trussel |first2=Stephen |title=The Austronesian Comparative Dictionary: A Work in Progress |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |date=2013 |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=493–523 |doi=10.1353/ol.2013.0016 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265931196}}</ref>

Bambusoideae (bamboos)

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Bamboo forest in Taiwan

Various species of bamboo (subfamily Bambusoideae) are found throughout Island Southeast Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia, East Asia, and South Asia. In Austronesian regions, different types of bamboos have different names, as well as the products made from them. They are used variously as building materials, fishing gear, musical instruments, knives, water and food vessels, and so on. Bamboo shoots are also a food source in Southeast Asia. A few species of bamboo were carried by Austronesian settlers as they colonized the Pacific islands. They include the ʻohe (Schizostachyum glaucifolium), the common bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris), and the thorny bamboo (Bambusa bambos).[33][34]

Reconstructed Proto-Austronesian words that referred to bamboo include *qauR, *kawayan, *buluq, and *betung. The latter entered Proto-Malayo-Polynesian and Proto-Oceanic as *bitung, with cognates including Malay awi bitung; Fijian bitu; and Tongan pitu. Most terms for bamboo in Polynesia, however, originated from Proto-South-Central-Pacific *kofe (originally from Proto-Polynesian *kofe, "root"). Modern cognates include Tongan and Niue kofe; Tokelau, Marquesan, Tuamotuan, and Māori kohe; Rarotongan koʻe; Samoan and Tahitian ʻofe; and Hawaiian ʻohe. Some names have also shifted refer to bamboo-like plants; especially in islands where they were not introduced into or did not survive, like in Aotearoa.[16][33][35]

脚注

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出典

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  14. ^ Kirch, Patrick V. (1989). "Second Millennium B.C. Arboriculture in Melanesia: Archaeological Evidence from the Mussau Islands". Economic Botany. 43 (2): 225–240. doi:10.1007/BF02859865. S2CID 29664192.
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  16. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference blusttrusell was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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  19. ^ Manner, Harley I. (2006). "Farm and Forestry Production Marketing Profile for Giant Tao (Alocasia macrorrhiza)" (PDF). In Elevitch, Craig R. (ed.). Specialty Crops for Pacific Island Agroforestry. Permanent Agricultural Resource (PAR).
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  25. ^ Lim, T.K. (2012). Edible Medicinal and Non-Medicinal Plants. Springer. ISBN 9789048186617.
  26. ^ Orwa, C.; Mutua, A.; Kindt, R.; Jamnadass, R.; Anthony, S. (2009). Artocarpus heterophyllus (PDF). Agroforestree Database:a tree reference and selection guide v.4.0. World Agroforestry.
  27. ^ Mônica M., de Almeida-Lopes; de Souza, Kellina O.; Ebenezer, de Oliveira-Silva (2018). "Cempedak—Artocarpus champeden". In Rodrigues, Sueli; de Oliveira-Silva, Ebenezer; de Brito, Edy Sousa (eds.). Exotic Fruits: Reference Guide. Academic Press. pp. 121–127. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803138-4.00017-4. ISBN 9780128031384.
  28. ^ Orwa, C.; Mutua, A.; Kindt, R.; Jamnadass, R.; Anthony, S. (2009). Artocarpus lakoocha (PDF). Agroforestree Database:a tree reference and selection guide v.4.0. World Agroforestry.
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  31. ^ Madulid, Domingo A. (6 August 2011). "Artocarpus treculianus". Philippine Native Plants. The Philippine Star. Retrieved 14 January 2019.
  32. ^ Ragone, Diane (2006). "Artocarpus camansi (breadnut)" (PDF). In Elevitch, Craig R. (ed.). Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR).
  33. ^ a b "*Kofe". Te Mära Reo: The Language Garden. Benton Family Trust. Retrieved 15 January 2019.
  34. ^ Bellwood, Peter (2009). "Archaeology and the Origins of Language Families". In Bentley, R. Alexander; Maschner, Herbert D.G.; Chippindale, Christopher (eds.). Handbook of Archaeological Theories. AltaMira Press. pp. 225–244. ISBN 9780759100336.
  35. ^ Fowler, Cynthia (2005). "Why is maize a sacred plant? Social history and agrarian change in Sumba" (PDF). Journal of Ethnobiology. 25 (1): 39–57. doi:10.2993/0278-0771(2005)25[39:WIMASP]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 37057768.

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