User:Skyyye/sandbox

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Pests, Diseases and Abiotic Stress[edit]

Most of the mungbean cultivars have a yield potential of 1.8-2.5 tons/ha. However, the actual average productivity of mungbean hovers around 0.5-0.7 t/ha. Several factors constrain its yield, including biotic and abiotic stresses[1]. Diseases not only decrease productivity but also affect the physical quality of seeds, leading to be totally unusable or unfit for human consumption. All the diseases collectively can lead to significant yield losses of up to 10%-100%[1].

Pests[edit]

Insect pests attack mungbean at all crop stages from sowing to storage and take a heavy toll on crop yield. Some insect pests directly damage the crop, while others act as vectors of diseases to transmit the virus.

Insects[edit]

Stem fly (bean fly), is one of the major pests of mungbean [2]. This pest infests the crop within a week after germination and under epidemic conditions, it can cause total crop loss[3].

Whitefly

Whitefly, B. tabaci is a serious pest in mungbean and damages the crop either directly by feeding on phloem sap and excreting honeydew on the plant that forms black sooty mould or indirectly by transmitting Mungbean yellow mosaic disease (MYMD). Whitefly causes yield losses between 17% and 71% in mungbean.

Thrips infest mungbean both in the seedling and in flowering stages. During the seedling stage, thrips infest the seedling’s growing point when it emerges from the ground, and under severe infestation, the seedlings fail to grow. Flowering thrips cause heavy damage and attack during flowering and pod formation. They feed on the pedicles and stigma of flowers. Under severe infestation, flowers drop and no pod formation takes place[1].

Spotted pod borer, Maruca vitrata (Fab.) is a major insect pest of mungbean in the tropics and subtropics[4]. The pest causes a yield loss of 2–84% in mungbean amounting the US $30 million. The larvae damage all the stages of the crop including flowers, stems, peduncles, and pods; however, heavy damage occurs at the flowering stage where the larvae form webs combining flowers and leaves.

Nematodes[edit]

Cowpea aphid sucks plant sap that causes loss of plant vigor and may lead to yellowing, stunting or distortion of plant parts. Further, aphids secrete honeydew (unused sap) which leads to the development of sooty mould on plant parts. Cowpea aphid also acts as a vector of the bean common mosaic virus.

Other Pests[edit]
The small Bruchid

Bruchid is the most sever stored pests of legume seeds worldwide, damage up to 100% losses within 3–6 months, if not controlled[5]. The cryptic behavior of bruchids where the grubs feed inside the legume seeds makes it easy to spread them through international trade.

Diseases[edit]

Viral, bacterial, and fungal diseases are of economic importance in South Asia, South East Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa.

Viral Disease[edit]

Mungbean yellow mosaic disease (MYMD) is an important viral disease of mungbean [6][2], which causes severe yield losses annually. MYMD is caused by three distinct begomoviruses, transmitted by whitefly Bemisia tabaci [1]. The economic losses due to MYMD account for up to 85% yield reduction in India [7].

Fungal Diseases[edit]

The major fungal diseases are Cercospora leaf spot (CLS), powdery mildew and anthracnose.

Dry root rot [Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid] is an emerging disease of mungbean, causing 10–44% yield losses in mungbean production in India and Pakistan.[8][2] The pathogen affects the fibrovascular system of the roots and basal internodes of its host, impeding the transport of water and nutrients to the upper parts of the plant.[9]

Bacterial Diseases[edit]

Halo blight, bacterial leaf spot, and tan spot are important bacterial diseases.

Abiotic Stress[edit]

Abiotic stresses negatively influence plant growth and productivity and are the primary causes of extensive agricultural losses worldwide[10]. Reduction in crop yield due to environmental variations has increased steadily over the decades. Abiotic stresses include extreme events and factors related to the atmosphere (heat, cold, and frost); water (drought and flooding); radiation (UV and ionizing radiation); soil (salinity, mineral or nutrient deficiency, heavy metal pollutants, pesticide residue, etc.) and mechanical factors (wind, soil compaction)[1].

Salinity[edit]

Salinity affects crop growth and yield by way of osmotic stress, ion toxicity, and reduced nodulation which ultimately lead to reduced nitrogen-fixing ability[11]. It is reported that salt stress significantly affected the performance of the root nodules in affected plants thereby reducing initiation, weight and nitrogen-fixing ability of the root nodules and also leading to inhibition of root colonization by Rhizobium[12]. Excessive salt led to leaf injury and subsequently to reduced photosynthesis[13].

Temperature and drought stress[edit]

High-temperature stress negatively affects reproductive development in mungbean and affects all reproductive traits viz., flower initiation, pollen viability, stigma receptivity, ovule size and viability, fertilization, pod set, grain filling as well as seed quality[14]. Temperature exceeding 42 °C during summer, causes hardening of seeds due to incomplete sink development[15].

Water stress[edit]

Mungbean requires a light moisture regime in the soil during its growing period, while at the time of harvest complete dry conditions are required. Since it is mostly grown under rainfed conditions, it is more susceptible to water deficiencies as compared to many other food legumes[16]. Drought affects its growth and development by negatively affecting vegetative growth, flower initiation, abnormal pollen behavior and pod set. However, simultaneously, excess moisture or waterlogging, even for a short period of time, especially at the early vegetative stage may be detrimental to the crop[17].

Other abiotic stresses[edit]

Mungbean may also be affected by excess soil and atmospheric moisture during the rainy season which may lead to pre-harvest sprouting in mature pods[2]. It deteriorates the quality of the seed/grain produced.

Integrated disease management[edit]

Using climate analysis tools delivered on the web can firstly help farmers to interrogate climate records to ask questions relating to rainfall, temperature, radiation, and derived variables to avoid some of the abiotic stresses. Deployment of varieties with genetic resistance is the most effective and durable method for integrated disease management, in the mean time focusing on yield, height, grain quality, market opportunities and seed availability [1]. For pre-harvest sprouting (PHS), the development of mungbean cultivars with short (10-15 days) period of fresh seed dormancy (FSD) is important to curtail losses incurred by PHS[18].

  1. ^ a b c d e f Nair, Ramakrishnan M.; Pandey, Abhay K.; War, Abdul R.; Hanumantharao, Bindumadhava; Shwe, Tun; Alam, AKMM; Pratap, Aditya; Malik, Shahid R.; Karimi, Rael; Mbeyagala, Emmanuel K.; Douglas, Colin A. (2019). "Biotic and Abiotic Constraints in Mungbean Production—Progress in Genetic Improvement". Frontiers in Plant Science. 10: 1340. doi:10.3389/fpls.2019.01340. ISSN 1664-462X. PMC 6829579. PMID 31736995.
  2. ^ a b c d https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/19926785567
  3. ^ Chiang, H. S.; Talekar, N. S. (1980-04-01). "Identification of Sources of Resistance to the Beanfly and Two Other Agromyzid Flies in Soybean and Mungbean12". Journal of Economic Entomology. 73 (2): 197–199. doi:10.1093/jee/73.2.197. ISSN 0022-0493.
  4. ^ Zahid, M. A.; Islam, M. M.; Begum, M. R. (eds.). "Determination of economic injury levels of Maruca vitrata in mungbean". Journal of Agriculture & Rural Development.
  5. ^ Somta, Prakit; Ammaranan, Chanida; Ooi, Peter A. -C.; Srinives, Peerasak (2007-05-01). "Inheritance of seed resistance to bruchids in cultivated mungbean (Vigna radiata, L. Wilczek)". Euphytica. 155 (1): 47–55. doi:10.1007/s10681-006-9299-9. ISSN 1573-5060. S2CID 44202251.
  6. ^ Noble, Thomas J.; Young, Anthony J.; Douglas, Colin A.; Williams, Brett; Mundree, Sagadevan (2019-03-18). "Diagnosis and management of halo blight in Australian mungbeans: a review". Crop and Pasture Science. 70 (3): 195–203. doi:10.1071/CP18541. ISSN 1836-5795. S2CID 92433869.
  7. ^ Karthikeyan, A.; Shobhana, V.G.; Sudha, M.; Raveendran, M.; Senthil, N.; Pandiyan, M.; Nagarajan, P. (2014-10-02). "Mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV): a threat to green gram (Vigna radiata) production in Asia". International Journal of Pest Management. 60 (4): 314–324. doi:10.1080/09670874.2014.982230. ISSN 0967-0874. S2CID 84876240.
  8. ^ Bashir, Muhammad; Malik, Bashir Ahmed (1988-01-01). "Diseases of major pulse crops in Pakistan—a review". Tropical Pest Management. 34 (3): 309–314. doi:10.1080/09670878809371262. ISSN 0143-6147.
  9. ^ "Charcoal rot (Macrophomina phaseolina) on mung bean". 1979. ISSN 0032-0862. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  10. ^ Shanker, Arun, ed. (2011-09-22). Abiotic Stress in Plants - Mechanisms and Adaptations. doi:10.5772/895. ISBN 978-953-307-394-1.
  11. ^ Pratap, Aditya; Gupta, Sanjeev; Basu, P. S.; Tomar, Rakhi; Dubey, Sonali; Rathore, Meenal; Prajapati, Uma Shankar; Singh, Parikshit; Kumari, Gita (2019), Kole, Chittaranjan (ed.), "Towards Development of Climate Smart Mungbean: Challenges and Opportunities", Genomic Designing of Climate-Smart Pulse Crops, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 235–264, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-96932-9_5, ISBN 978-3-319-96932-9, S2CID 190239083, retrieved 2021-11-27
  12. ^ "Biochemical Mechanisms of Salt Tolerance in Plants: A Review". scialert.net. Retrieved 2021-11-28.
  13. ^ Hossain, Mohammad Anwar; Fujita, Masayuki (2010-01-01). "Evidence for a role of exogenous glycinebetaine and proline in antioxidant defense and methylglyoxal detoxification systems in mung bean seedlings under salt stress". Physiology and Molecular Biology of Plants. 16 (1): 19–29. doi:10.1007/s12298-010-0003-0. ISSN 0974-0430. PMC 3550627. PMID 23572951.
  14. ^ HanumanthaRao, Bindumadhava; Nair, Ramakrishnan M.; Nayyar, Harsh (2016). "Salinity and High Temperature Tolerance in Mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] from a Physiological Perspective". Frontiers in Plant Science. 7: 957. doi:10.3389/fpls.2016.00957. ISSN 1664-462X. PMC 4925713. PMID 27446183.
  15. ^ Douglas, Col; Pratap, Aditya; Rao, Bindumadhava Hanumantha; Manu, B.; Dubey, Sonali; Singh, Parikshit; Tomar, Rakhi (2020), Nair, Ramakrishnan M.; Schafleitner, Roland; Lee, Suk-Ha (eds.), "Breeding Progress and Future Challenges: Abiotic Stresses", The Mungbean Genome, Compendium of Plant Genomes, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 81–96, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20008-4_6, ISBN 978-3-030-20008-4, S2CID 214254024, retrieved 2021-11-28
  16. ^ Pandey, R. K.; Herrera, W. a. T.; Pendleton, J. W. (1984). "Drought Response of Grain Legumes Under Irrigation Gradient: I. Yield and Yield Components1". Agronomy Journal. 76 (4): 549–553. doi:10.2134/agronj1984.00021962007600040009x. ISSN 1435-0645.
  17. ^ Tickoo, Satish K.; dePeralta-Venturina, Mariza N.; Harik, Lara R.; Worcester, Heath D.; Salama, Mohamed E.; Young, Andrew N.; Moch, Holger; Amin, Mahul B. (February 2006). "Spectrum of Epithelial Neoplasms in End-Stage Renal Disease: An Experience From 66 Tumor-Bearing Kidneys With Emphasis on Histologic Patterns Distinct From Those in Sporadic Adult Renal Neoplasia". The American Journal of Surgical Pathology. 30 (2): 141–153. doi:10.1097/01.pas.0000185382.80844.b1. ISSN 0147-5185. PMID 16434887. S2CID 19412401.
  18. ^ Lamichaney, Amrit; Katiyar, Pradip Kumar; Laxmi, Vijay; Pratap, Aditya (October 2018). "Variation in pre-harvest sprouting tolerance and fresh seed germination in mungbean (Vigna radiata L.) genotypes". Plant Genetic Resources. 16 (5): 437–445. doi:10.1017/S1479262117000296. ISSN 1479-2621. S2CID 90708468.
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