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War crimes in the Korean War

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The Korean War was a major conflict of the Cold War and among the most destructive conflicts of the modern era, with approximately 3 million killed, most of whom were civilians. It resulted in the destruction of virtually all of Korea's major cities, with thousands of massacres committed by both sides—including the mass killing of tens of thousands of suspected communists by the South Korean government, and the torture and starvation of prisoners of war by the North Koreans.[1] North Korea became among the most heavily bombed countries in history.[2]

Civilian deaths and massacres

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Further information: Seoul National University Hospital Massacre, Bodo League massacre, No Gun Ri Massacre, Sinchon Massacre, Ganghwa massacre, Sancheong-Hamyang massacre, and Geochang massacre
South Korean soldiers walk among the bodies of political prisoners executed near Daejon, July 1950

Around 3 million people died in the Korean War, the majority of whom were civilians, possibly making it the deadliest conflict of the Cold War era.[3][4][5][6][7] Although only rough estimates of civilian fatalities are available, scholars from Guenter Lewy to Bruce Cumings have noted that the percentage of civilian casualties in Korea was higher than in World War II or the Vietnam War, with Cumings putting civilian casualties at 2 million and Lewy estimating civilian deaths in the range of 2 million to 3 million.[3][4]

Cumings states that civilians represent at least half of the war's casualties, while Lewy suggests that the civilian portion of the death toll may have gone as high as 70%, compared to Lewy's estimates of 42% in World War II and 30%–46% in the Vietnam War.[3][4] Data compiled by the Peace Research Institute Oslo lists just under 1 million battle deaths over the course of the Korean War (with a range of 644,696 to 1.5 million) and a mid-value estimate of 3 million total deaths (with a range of 1.5 million to 4.5 million), attributing the difference to excess mortality among civilians from one-sided massacres, starvation, and disease.[8] Compounding this devastation for Korean civilians, virtually all major cities on the Korean Peninsula were destroyed as a result of the war.[4] In both per capita and absolute terms, North Korea was the country most devastated by the war. According to Charles K. Armstrong, the war resulted in the death of an estimated 12%–15% of the North Korean population (c. 10 million), "a figure close to or surpassing the proportion of Soviet citizens killed in World War II".[9]

Civilians killed during a night battle near Yongsan, August 1950

There were numerous atrocities and massacres of civilians throughout the Korean War committed by both sides, starting in the war's first days. In 2005–2010, a South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission investigated atrocities and other human rights violations through much of the 20th century, from the Japanese colonial period through the Korean War and beyond. It excavated some mass graves from the Bodo League massacres and confirmed the general outlines of those political executions. Of the Korean War-era massacres the commission was petitioned to investigate, 82% were perpetrated by South Korean forces, with 18% perpetrated by North Korean forces.[10][11][12]

The commission also received petitions alleging more than 200 large-scale killings of South Korean civilians by the U.S. military during the war, mostly air attacks. It confirmed several such cases, including refugees crowded into a cave attacked with napalm bombs, which survivors said killed 360 people, and an air attack that killed 197 refugees gathered in a field in the far south. It recommended South Korea seek reparations from the United States, but in 2010, a reorganized commission under a new, conservative government concluded that most U.S. mass killings resulted from "military necessity", while in a small number of cases, they concluded, the U.S. military had acted with "low levels of unlawfulness", but the commission recommended against seeking reparations.[12]

Abuse of prisoners of war

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See also: Korean War POWs detained in North Korea, Hill 303 massacre, and List of American and British defectors in the Korean War

Chinese POWs

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North Korean and Chinese prisoners of war in a camp at Busan in April 1951

Chinese sources claim at Geoje prison camp on Geoje Island, Chinese POWs experienced anti-communist lecturing and missionary work from secret agents from the U.S. and Taiwan.[13] Pro-communist POWs experienced torture, cutting off of limbs, or were executed in public.[14][15] Being forced to write confession letters and receiving tattoos of an anti-communism slogan and Flag of the Republic of China were also commonly seen, in case any wanted to go back to mainland China.[16][17] Pro-communist POWs who could not endure the torture formed an underground group to fight the pro-nationalist POWs secretly by assassination,[18] which led to the Geoje uprising. The rebellion captured Francis Dodd, and was suppressed by the 187th Infantry Regiment.

In the end, 14,235 Chinese POWs went to Taiwan and fewer than 6,000 POWs returned to mainland China.[19] Those who went to Taiwan are called "righteous men" and experienced brainwashing again and were sent to the army or were arrested;[20] while the survivors who returned to mainland China were welcomed as a "hero" first, but experienced anti-brainwashing, strict interrogation, and house arrest eventually, after the tattoos were discovered.[18] After 1988, the Taiwanese government allowed POWs to go back to mainland China and helped remove anti-communist tattoos; while the mainland Chinese government started to allow mainland Chinese prisoners of war to return from Taiwan.[20]

UN Command POWs

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The United States reported that North Korea mistreated prisoners of war: soldiers were beaten, tortured, starved, put to forced labor, marched to death, and summarily executed.

The KPA killed POWs at the battles for Hill 312, Hill 303, the Pusan Perimeter, Daejeon and Sunchon; these massacres were discovered afterwards by the UN forces. Later, a U.S. Congress war crimes investigation, the United States Senate Subcommittee on Korean War Atrocities of the Permanent Subcommittee of the Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations, reported that "two-thirds of all American prisoners of war in Korea died as a result of war crimes".

Although the Chinese rarely executed prisoners of war like their North Korean counterparts, mass starvation and diseases swept through the Chinese-run POW camps during the winter of 1950–51. About 43% of U.S. POWs died during this period. The Chinese defended their actions by stating that all Chinese soldiers during this period were suffering mass starvation and diseases because of logistical difficulties. The UN POWs said that most of the Chinese camps were located near the easily supplied Sino-Korean border and that the Chinese withheld food to force the prisoners to accept the communism indoctrination programs. According to Chinese reports, over a thousand U.S. POWs died by the end of June 1951, while a dozen British POWs died, and all Turkish POWs survived.[21] According to Hastings, wounded U.S. POWs died for lack of medical attention and were fed a diet of corn and millet "devoid of vegetables, almost barren of proteins, minerals, or vitamins" with only 1/3 the calories of their usual diet. Especially in early 1951, thousands of prisoners lost the will to live and "declined to eat the mess of sorghum and rice they were provided".[22]

Two men without shirts on sit surrounded by soldiers
Two Hill 303 survivors after being rescued by U.S. units, 17 August 1950

The unpreparedness of U.S. POWs to resist heavy communist indoctrination during the Korean War led to the Code of the United States Fighting Force which governs how U.S. military personnel in combat should act when they must "evade capture, resist while a prisoner or escape from the enemy".[23][24]

North Korea may have detained up to 50,000 South Korean POWs after the ceasefire.[25]: 141  Over 88,000 South Korean soldiers were missing and the KPA claimed they captured 70,000 South Koreans.[25]: 142  However, when ceasefire negotiations began in 1951, the KPA reported they held only 8,000 South Koreans. The UN Command protested the discrepancies and alleged that the KPA were forcing South Korean POWs to join the KPA.[26] The KPA denied such allegations. They claimed their POW rosters were small because many POWs were killed in UN air raids and that they had released ROK soldiers at the front. They insisted only volunteers were allowed to serve in the KPA.[27][25]: 143  By early 1952, UN negotiators gave up trying to get back the missing South Koreans.[28] The POW exchange proceeded without access to South Korean POWs who were not on the PVA/KPA rosters.[29]

North Korea continued to claim that any South Korean POW who stayed in the North did so voluntarily. However, since 1994, South Korean POWs have been escaping North Korea on their own after decades of captivity. As of 2010, the South Korean Ministry of Unification reported that 79 ROK POWs escaped the North. The South Korean government estimates 500 South Korean POWs continue to be detained in North Korea.[30] The escaped POWs have testified about their treatment and written memoirs about their lives in North Korea.[31] They report they were not told about the POW exchange procedures and were assigned to work in mines in the remote northeastern regions near the Chinese and Russian border.[31]: 31  Declassified Soviet Foreign Ministry documents corroborate such testimony.[32]

National Defense Corps incident

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See also: National Defense Corps incident

In December 1950, the South Korean National Defense Corps was founded; the soldiers were 406,000 drafted citizens. In the winter of 1951, 50,000 to 90,000 South Korean National Defense Corps soldiers starved to death while marching southward under the PVA offensive when their commanding officers embezzled funds earmarked for their food. This event is called the National Defense Corps Incident. Although his political allies certainly profited from corruption, it remains controversial if Syngman Rhee was personally involved in or benefited from the corruption.[33]

Bombing of North Korea

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Main article: Bombing of North Korea
Pyongyang in May 1951

The initial bombing attack on North Korea was approved on the fourth day of the war, 29 June 1950, by General Douglas MacArthur immediately upon request by the commanding general of the Far East Air Forces (FEAF), George E. Stratemeyer.[34] Major bombing began in late July.[35] U.S. airpower conducted 7,000 close support and interdiction airstrikes that month, which helped slow the North Korean rate of advance to 3 km (2 mi) per day.[36] On 12 August 1950, the USAF dropped 625 tons of bombs on North Korea; two weeks later, the daily tonnage increased to some 800 tons.

The U.S. dropped a total of 635,000 tons of bombs, including 32,557 tons of napalm, on Korea, more than during the entire Pacific War.[37] North Korea ranks alongside Cambodia (500,000 tons), Laos (2 million tons) and South Vietnam (4 million tons) as among the most heavily bombed countries in history, with Laos suffering the most extensive bombardment relative to its size and population.[38]

A USAF Douglas B-26B Invader of the 452nd Bombardment Wing bombing a target in North Korea, 29 May 1951

Almost every substantial building in North Korea was destroyed as a result.[39][40] The war's highest-ranking U.S. POW, Major General William F. Dean, reported that the majority of North Korean cities and villages he saw were either rubble or snow-covered wasteland.[41] North Korean factories, schools, hospitals, and government offices were forced to move underground, and air defenses were "non-existent".[37] In May 1953, five major North Korean dams were bombed. According to Charles K. Armstrong, the bombing of these dams and ensuing floods threatened several million North Koreans with starvation, although large-scale famine was averted with emergency aid provided by North Korea's allies.[42] General Matthew Ridgway said that except for air power, "the war would have been over in 60 days with all Korea in Communist hands". UN air forces flew 1,040,708 combat and combat support sorties during the war. FEAF flew the majority at 710,886 (69.3% of sorties), with the U.S. Navy performing 16.1%, the U.S. Marine Corps 10.3%, and 4.3% by other allied air forces.[36]

As well as conventional bombing, the communist side claimed that the U.S. used biological weapons. These claims have been disputed; Conrad Crane asserts that while the U.S. worked towards developing chemical and biological weapons, the U.S. military "possessed neither the ability, nor the will", to use them in combat.[43]

In the eyes of North Koreans, as well as some observers, the deliberate targeting of civilian infrastructure (which resulted in the destruction of cities and a high civilian death count) was a war crime.[44][45][46] Historian Bruce Cumings has likened the American bombing to genocide.[47]

References

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  1. ^ "The Korean War Hasn't Officially Ended. One Reason: POWs". HISTORY. 2019-02-28. Retrieved 2024-04-19.
  2. ^ Fisher, Max (2015-08-03). "Americans have forgotten what we did to North Korea". Vox. Retrieved 2021-10-18.
  3. ^ a b c Cumings, Bruce (2011). The Korean War: A History. Modern Library. p. 35. ISBN 9780812978964. Various encyclopedias state that the countries involved in the three-year conflict suffered a total of more than 4 million casualties, of which at least 2 million were civilians—a higher percentage than in World War II or Vietnam. A total of 36,940 Americans lost their lives in the Korean theater; of these, 33,665 were killed in action, while 3,275 died there of non-hostile causes. Some 92,134 Americans were wounded in action, and decades later, 8,176 were still reported as missing. South Korea sustained 1,312,836 casualties, including 415,004 dead. Casualties among other UN allies totaled 16,532, including 3,094 dead. Estimated North Korean casualties numbered 2 million, including about one million civilians and 520,000 soldiers. An estimated 900,000 Chinese soldiers lost their lives in combat.
  4. ^ a b c d Lewy, Guenter (1980). America in Vietnam. Oxford University Press. pp. 450–453. ISBN 9780199874231. For the Korean War the only hard statistic is that of American military deaths, which included 33,629 battle deaths and 20,617 who died of other causes. The North Korean and Chinese Communists never published statistics of their casualties. The number of South Korean military deaths has been given as in excess of 400,000; the South Korean Ministry of Defense puts the number of killed and missing at 281,257. Estimates of communist troops killed are about one-half million. The total number of Korean civilians who died in the fighting, which left almost every major city in North and South Korea in ruins, has been estimated at between 2 and 3 million. This adds up to almost 1 million military deaths and a possible 2.5 million civilians who were killed or died as a result of this extremely destructive conflict. The proportion of civilians killed in the major wars of this century (and not only in the major ones) has thus risen steadily. It reached about 42 percent in World War II and may have gone as high as 70 percent in the Korean War. ... we find that the ratio of civilian to military deaths [in Vietnam] is not substantially different from that of World War II and is well below that of the Korean War.
  5. ^ Kim, Samuel S. (2014). "The Evolving Asian System". International Relations of Asia. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 45. ISBN 9781442226418. With three of the four major Cold War fault lines—divided Germany, divided Korea, divided China, and divided Vietnam—East Asia acquired the dubious distinction of having engendered the largest number of armed conflicts resulting in higher fatalities between 1945 and 1994 than any other region or sub-region. Even in Asia, while Central and South Asia produced a regional total of 2.8 million in human fatalities, East Asia's regional total is 10.4 million including the Chinese Civil War (1 million), the Korean War (3 million), the Vietnam War (2 million), and the Pol Pot genocide in Cambodia (1 to 2 million).
  6. ^ McGuire, James (2010). Wealth, Health, and Democracy in East Asia and Latin America. Cambridge University Press. p. 203. ISBN 9781139486224. In Korea, war in the early 1950s cost nearly 3 million lives, including nearly a million civilian dead in South Korea.
  7. ^ Painter, David S. (1999). The Cold War: An International History. Routledge. p. 30. ISBN 9780415153164. Before it ended, the Korean War cost over 3 million people their lives, including over 50,000 U.S. servicemen and women, and a much higher number of Chinese and Korean lives. The war also set in motion a number of changes that led to the militarization and intensification of the Cold War.
  8. ^ Lacina, Bethany (September 2009). "The PRIO Battle Deaths Dataset, 1946–2008, Version 3.0" (PDF). Peace Research Institute Oslo. pp. 359–362. Retrieved 29 August 2019.
  9. ^ Armstrong, Charles K. (20 December 2010). "The Destruction and Reconstruction of North Korea, 1950–1960" (PDF). The Asia-Pacific Journal. 8 (51): 1. Retrieved 13 September 2019. The number of Korean dead, injured or missing by war's end approached three million, ten percent of the overall population. The majority of those killed were in the North, which had half of the population of the South; although the DPRK does not have official figures, possibly twelve to fifteen percent of the population was killed in the war, a figure close to or surpassing the proportion of Soviet citizens killed in World War II.
  10. ^ "Truth Commission: South Korea 2005". United States Institute of Peace. Archived from the original on 10 June 2015. Retrieved 23 December 2018.
  11. ^ cf. the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's preliminary March 2009 report: "Truth and Reconciliation: Activities of the Past Three Years" (PDF). Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Korea). March 2009. p. 39. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Out of those 9,600 petitions, South Korean forces conducted 7,922 individual massacres and North Korean forces conducted 1,687 individual massacres.
  12. ^ a b "Korea bloodbath probe ends; US escapes much blame". The San Diego Union Tribune. 10 July 2010. Retrieved 11 June 2019. Last November, after investigating petitions from surviving relatives, the commission announced it had verified and identified 4,934 execution victims. But historian Kim Dong-choon, the former commissioner who led that investigation, estimates at least 60,000 to 110,000 died, and similar numbers were summarily executed when northern troops were driven from South Korea later in 1950 and alleged southern collaborators were rounded up. 'I am estimating conservatively,' he said. Korean War historian Park Myung-lim, methodically reviewing prison records, said he believes perhaps 200,000 were slaughtered in mid-1950 alone.
  13. ^ Hsiu-Huan Chou, A Study on the Transport of Anti-communist Fighters to Taiwan during the Korean War (1950–1954), pp. 126–29, Academia Historica of Republic of China, June 2011 weblink Archived 23 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, (in Chinese)
  14. ^ Xiaobing Li, Soldiers from four countries discuss about Korean War, Vol 1. (四国士兵话朝战(之一)), 《冷战国际史研究》第6辑, 2008年第2期 (in Chinese)
  15. ^ Decrypt the truth that ten thousands pow went to Taiwan Archived 15 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine 2013-07-29, retrieved on 18 June 2017 (in Chinese)
  16. ^ 王二根, 李文林. 一个被俘志愿军战士的自述. 《炎黄春秋杂志》2011年第1期 (in Chinese)
  17. ^ "1954年14000名志愿军战俘去台湾的真相". www.people.com.cn. 13 March 2012. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.
  18. ^ a b China's Korean War POWs find you can't go home again | The Japan Times Archived 17 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine 2000-06-28, retrieved on 18 June 2017
  19. ^ Hermes 1992a.
  20. ^ a b POW of PVA in Taiwan Archived 6 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine, 谌旭彬, Hong Kong Chinese University
  21. ^ 中国人民解放军总政治部联络部编. 敌军工作史料·第6册(1949年–1955年). 1989
  22. ^ Hastings. The Korean War. Guild Publishing London. 1987. 29092
  23. ^ "The military Code of Conduct: a brief history". Archived from the original on 16 December 2013.
  24. ^ "Code of Conduct". usmcpress.com. Archived from the original on 27 September 2014.
  25. ^ a b c Heo, Man-ho (2002). "North Korea's Continued Detention of South Korean POWs since the Korean and Vietnam Wars" (PDF). The Korean Journal of Defense Analysis. 14 (2): 141–165. doi:10.1080/10163270209464030. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 January 2016.
  26. ^ Hermes 1992, p. 136.
  27. ^ Hermes 1992, p. 143.
  28. ^ Hermes 1992, p. 149.
  29. ^ Hermes 1992, p. 514.
  30. ^ "Republic of Korea Ministry of Unification Initiatives on South Korean Prisoners of War and Abductees". Archived from the original on 2 November 2013.
  31. ^ a b Yoo, Young-Bok (2012). Tears of Blood: A Korean POW's Fight for Freedom, Family and Justice. Korean War POW Affairs-USA. ISBN 978-1479383856. Archived from the original on 17 May 2013.
  32. ^ Volokhova, Alena (2000). "Armistice Talks in Korea (1951–1953): Based on Documents from the Russian Foreign Policy Archives". Far Eastern Affairs (2): 74, 86, 89–90. Archived from the original on 3 November 2013.
  33. ^ Terence Roehrig (2001). Prosecution of Former Military Leaders in Newly Democratic Nations: The Cases of Argentina, Greece, and South Korea. McFarland & Company. p. 139. ISBN 978-0786410910. Archived from the original on 21 September 2015.
  34. ^ Kim, Taewoo (2012). "Limited War, Unlimited Targets: U.S. Air Force Bombing of North Korea during the Korean War, 1950–1953". Critical Asian Studies. 44 (3): 467–492. doi:10.1080/14672715.2012.711980. S2CID 142704845..
  35. ^ Ward Thomas (14 June 2001). The Ethics of Destruction: Norms and Force in International Relations. Cornell University Press. p. 149. ISBN 978-0801487415.
  36. ^ a b Correll, John T. (1 April 2020). "The Difference in Korea". Air Force Magazine. Retrieved 14 June 2020.
  37. ^ a b Armstrong, Charles (20 December 2010). "The Destruction and Reconstruction of North Korea, 1950–1960". The Asia-Pacific Journal. 8 (51).
  38. ^ Kiernan, Ben; Owen, Taylor (27 April 2015). "Making More Enemies than We Kill? Calculating U.S. Bomb Tonnages Dropped on Laos and Cambodia, and Weighing Their Implications". The Asia-Pacific Journal. 13 (17). Retrieved 30 August 2019.
  39. ^ Cumings 2005, pp. 297–98.
  40. ^ Jager 2013, pp. 237–42.
  41. ^ William F Dean (1954) General Dean's Story, (as told to William L Worden), Viking Press, pp. 272–73.
  42. ^ Armstrong, Charles K. (20 December 2010). "The Destruction and Reconstruction of North Korea, 1950–1960" (PDF). The Asia-Pacific Journal. 8 (51): 1. Retrieved 13 September 2019. The number of Korean dead, injured or missing by war's end approached three million, ten percent of the overall population. The majority of those killed were in the North, which had half of the population of the South; although the DPRK does not have official figures, possibly twelve to fifteen percent of the population was killed in the war, a figure close to or surpassing the proportion of Soviet citizens killed in World War II.
  43. ^ Crane, Conrad (Spring 2002). ""No Practical Capabilities": American Biological and Chemical Warfare Programs During the Korean War". Perspectives in Biology and Medicine. 45 (2): 241–249. doi:10.1353/pbm.2002.0024. PMID 11919382. S2CID 23091486.
  44. ^ Armstrong, Charles K. (20 December 2010). "The Destruction and Reconstruction of North Korea, 1950-1960" (PDF). The Asia-Pacific Journal. 8 (51): 1. Retrieved 13 September 2019. The number of Korean dead, injured or missing by war's end approached three million, ten percent of the overall population. The majority of those killed were in the North, which had half of the population of the South; although the DPRK does not have official figures, possibly twelve to fifteen percent of the population was killed in the war, a figure close to or surpassing the proportion of Soviet citizens killed in World War II.
  45. ^ Harden, Blaine (24 March 2015). "The U.S. war crime North Korea won't forget". The Washington Post.
  46. ^ Fisher, Max (3 August 2015). "Americans have forgotten what we did to North Korea". Vox.com.
  47. ^ Garner, Dwight (21 July 2010). "Carpet-Bombing Falsehoods About a War That's Little Understood". The New York Times.

Bibliography

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