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Ala al-Dawla Bozkurt

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Bozkurt Beg
Bozkurt Beg in a miniature by Mo'en Mosavver in Tarikh-e Alamara-ye Shah Ismail (1676)
Beg of Dulkadir
ReignLate 1480 – 13 June 1515
PredecessorShah Budak
SuccessorAli
Ottoman Sanjak-bey of Chirmen
Reign1479
Ottoman Sanjak-bey of Kırşehir
Reign1480
Born1428 (1428)
Died13 June 1515(1515-06-13) (aged 86–87)
Ördekli [tr], Beylik of Dulkadir
Burial
Gökçeli, Andırın
ConsortShamsa Khatun (d. 1509)
Issue
Among others
Royal houseDulkadir
FatherSuleiman
ReligionSunni Islam

Ala al-Dawla Bozkurt Beg (Turkish: Alaüddevle Bozkurt Bey; 1428 – 13 June 1515)[a] was the ruler of Dulkadir in southern and central Anatolia from late 1480 until his death. Championed by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II (r. 1444–46, 1451–81), Bozkurt ousted his brother Shah Budak (r. 1465–66, 1472–80) and claimed the throne. Early into his reign, Bozkurt assisted Mehmed's successor Bayezid II (r. 1481–1512) in pursuing his rival claimant brother Cem Sultan, who was harbored by the Mamluk Sultanate. Bozkurt besieged Malatya, which prompted the Mamluks to initiate an offensive against him and the Ottomans. During the conflict, Bozkurt refrained from sending his support to the Ottomans, which contributed to their defeat by the Mamluks.

After escaping a Mamluk prison, Bozkurt's brother Shah Budak found safety under the Ottoman sultan. To dethrone and punish Bozkurt for his disloyalty, the Ottomans backed Shah Budak. However, Bozkurt was able to mislead much of the Ottoman supporting forces, and a portion of the commanders who favored Bozkurt deserted Shah Budak, who was defeated and fled to the Mamluks in Egypt. After Shah Budak's defeat, Bozkurt followed a policy of neutrality in the context of Ottoman–Mamluk relations, but secretly acted against the Ottomans when he saw fit.

Bozkurt antagonized the Safavid ruler Ismail I (r. 1501–24), who conquered vast portions of modern-day Iran. Bozkurt declined Ismail's wish to marry his daughter and instead gave his support to the Aq Qoyunlu and made an effort to expand to the east, temporarily seizing various towns such as Urfa and Diyarbekir. Dulkadirid rule in the region did not last long as Bozkurt suffered multiple major defeats at the hands of Ismail's commander, Mohammad Khan Ustajlu. Despite this, Bozkurt eventually established peaceful relations with Ismail. This facilitated the new Ottoman sultan Selim I (r. 1512–20) to make plans to replace Bozkurt with his nephew Ali as Bozkurt gave support to Ismail, Selim's enemy. After overpowering Ismail at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, Selim changed his focus to the Dulkadirids. Bozkurt was killed at the Battle of Turnadağ and was succeeded by Ali.

Background

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The Beylik of Dulkadir was founded in southern Anatolia and northern Syria by Zayn al-Din Qaraja (r. 1337–53), a local Turkmen lord, as a client state of the Mamluk Sultanate. Qaraja eventually rebelled against the Mamluks and was executed in 1353. The conflict between the Dulkadirids and the Mamluks persisted during the successive rule of Qaraja's sons Ghars al-Din Khalil (r. 1353–86) and Shaban Suli (r. 1386–98), who were both assassinated on the orders of the Mamluk Sultan Barquq (r. 1382–89, 1390–99). With the reigns of Bozkurt's grandfather, Mehmed (r. 1399–1442), and father, Suleiman (r. 1442–54), the Dulkadirids attempted to forge amicable relations both with the Ottoman state and the Mamluk Sultanate.[2]

Malik Arslan's (r. 1454–65) death marked the start of an era of struggle between his brothers. Shah Budak (r. 1465–66, 1472–80) initially claimed the throne with Mamluk support. Shortly after, he was forced out of the throne by the Ottoman-backed Shah Suwar (r. 1466–72). Throughout his reign, Shah Suwar was involved in a persistent dispute with the Mamluks. Emboldened by his victories, he considerably expanded his territory. The Ottomans eventually withdrew their support as they disapproved of his disloyalty and continuous conflict with their southern neighbors. The Mamluks recovered their previous losses, captured Shah Suwar and executed him, reinstating Shah Budak as the head of the Dulkadirid state.[2]

Early life

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Bozkurt was born in 1428.[3] In 1467, Bozkurt arranged his daughter Ayshe Hatun's marriage to Bayezid, the son and future successor of Mehmed II (r. 1444–46, 1451–81) of the Ottoman Empire.[4] Following the marriage, Bozkurt lived with his son-in-law but returned to his homeland a short while after.[5] Five years later, Bozkurt returned to the Ottoman realm following the defeat of Shah Suwar by the Mamluks.[4]

In 1479, after raiding in the region of Sivas, Bozkurt's wife and son were captured by the sanjak-bey Mihaloghlu Ali Bey. With a supporting force of a thousand troops from Shah Budak, Bozkurt attacked Ali Bey near Çiğnem Stream, forcing him to flee to a nearby fortress. Afraid of the repercussions of his animosity with an Ottoman official, Bozkurt traveled to Constantinople to appeal to Mehmed II. The latter, wishing to restore the Ottoman influence over the Dulkadirids, made Bozkurt the sanjak-bey of Chirmen. Mehmed II strove to enthrone Bozkurt after he received an unfriendly response from Qaitbay when he brought up his earlier promise of leaving his realm to the Ottomans in exchange for their help against Shah Suwar. On the other hand, the Mamluks were in a vulnerable position following their defeat by the Aq Qoyunlu ruler Yaqub (r. 1478–90) in Ruha in November 1480.[5] Mehmed II thus gave Bozkurt the sanjak of Kırşehir.[5]

Bozkurt marched on Shah Budak with auxiliary Ottoman forces. He initially faced a defeat as some of the Turkmens under him switched sides. The Ottoman forces led by Bayezid's kapıcıbaşı fled to Sis, where they were massacred by the city's Mamluk governor, Sakalsizoghlu Yusuf, who sent their heads to Cairo, where Qaitbay organized a game of jereed to be played with them.[6] Mehmed II allowed Bozkurt a larger army under his command, which finally defeated Shah Budak near the Çiğnem Stream, though the historians of that time did not disclose the date of the encounter between the brothers.[4] In March 1480, Shah Budak requested to enter the Mamluk territory near Aleppo.[7] Ibn Tulun recorded Shah Budak's arrival in Damascus on 14 February 1481, who lost the throne sometime before this date and lastly reached Egypt.[6] Uzbek, the Mamluk governor of Damascus, who was in the region tasked with countering the fall of Ruha, did not assist Shah Budak in restoring him to his throne, and instead imprisoned him at the Citadel of Damascus. The contemporary chronicler Sayrafi described Qaitbay's contentment from Shah Budak's imprisonment due to his failure to show up to defend the Mamluks.[8]

Reign

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First Ottoman–Mamluk War

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Bozkurt sent one of his sons to the Mamluk capital of Cairo and granted the Mamluks various towns in northern Syria. In February 1481, Bozkurt asked Uzbek to transmit his wish to receive manshur (diploma) and a robe of honour from Qaitbay. In April, Bozkurt reached Aleppo but did not enter the city, afraid of getting killed. There, Janibak Habib al-Inali, sent there by Uzbek, gave Bozkurt a robe signifying Qaitbay's approval of Mamluk patronage over the Dulkadirids.[8]

The next month, Mehmed II passed away unexpectedly, possibly amidst the preparations for a campaign against the Mamluk Sultanate. Bozkurt attempted to simultaneously maintain amicable relations with the new Ottoman sultan, Bayezid II (r. 1481–1512).[9] While trying to extinguish the revolt led by his claimant brother Cem Sultan in Konya, Bayezid II requested Bozkurt to find Cem in early March 1482,[10] who potentially passed through Bozkurt's realm. Bozkurt was unsuccessful in catching Cem, who managed to escape to the Mamluks in Egypt. Cem later returned to Anatolia and allied himself with Kasım of Karaman to overthrow Bayezid II. Bozkurt started pursuing him once again in June 1482, accompanied by Iskender Pasha. Bozkurt met with Bayezid II in Laranda, informing him of the failure to restrain Cem, who found refuge with the Knights of Rhodes. Bozkurt thus returned to his country in July.[11] Following Cem's escape, a population of Muslims and Christians from Karaman, governed by Bayezid's son Abdullah, migrated to the Dulkadirid domains, causing a dispute over tax jurisdiction with the Ottomans. It is known that Bayezid II intervened in the issue; the exact outcome is unknown but presumably preserved peace between the two sides.[9]

Domains of Ala al-Dawla (Aladulia) located between Natolia, Caramania, Armenia, and Turcomania, as depicted by English cartographer John Seller in 1690

In response to the attack against the Ottomans by Cem Sultan, who was being harbored by the Mamluks, Bozkurt laid siege to the Mamluk-held city of Malatya in July 1483.[9] Bozkurt was either encouraged by Bayezid or intended him to directly deal a blow to the state's southern neighbor. Bozkurt's siege gave off the message to the Mamluks that their long-time frontier in the north was dissipating. The Mamluk army with 500 royal expeditionary forces thus set out for the region in August.[12] Hadım Ali Pasha, the beylerbey of Karaman, reported of the Mamluk forces stationed around Aleppo as well as the offensive led by the Ramadanid ruler Eflatun Beg from the Cilician Plain and the nearby rebellion of Turgudoghlu Mahmud Pasha. The Mamluks penetrated the Dulkadirid lands decimating parts of the country and its fields. Bozkurt evacuated Elbistan, the capital, secluding his family and army in the mountains and calling for support from Bayezid's son Ahmed. Bayezid backed Bozkurt with an army led by Yakub Pasha and Turkmen tribes loyal to the Ottomans. Contemporary Mamluk historian Ibn Iyas described this decision as "the first move by the Ottomans against the [Mamluk] sultan's country", while another contemporary writer, the Ottoman historian Kemalpaşazade, characterized this as "the onset of hostility and the beginning of enmity".[13] Near Elbistan in February[14] or March, the first clashes between the rival forces resulted in major Mamluk casualties and defeat.[13]

Qaitbay mobilized the military in Egypt, which marched north in May[9] or June 1484. Among its ranks were 500 royal mamluks, the future Mamluk sultan Qansuh al-Ghawri as the newly appointed amīr ʿashara (lit. 'emir of ten'), and amīr silah Temeruz al-Shamsi as its leader. The force was joined by local Bedouins near Ramla.[15] Bozkurt demanded help from Bayezid II. The Ottoman sultan tasked Yakub Pasha to deal with the Mamluks, who had pillaged Marash and were approaching Elbistan.[9] Some time between 24 August and 21 September 1484, a bloody battle took place near the fortress of Hirman, to the north of Elbistan, resulting in an Ottoman–Dulkadirid victory.[16] Waradbash, the governor of Aleppo, was beheaded by Bozkurt, Almas, the governor of Safed, died in battle, and Aynal and Korkmaz, the governors of Tripoli and Tarsus, respectively, were both captured.[14]

After this victory, Bozkurt persuaded Yakub Pasha to attempt to seize Malatya. There on 23 September, the Ottoman forces were flanked by Timraz and suffered many casualties, although Yakub Pasha and Bozkurt were able to flee.[14] The Mamluks celebrated the victory in Aleppo by parading the Ottoman prisoners in the city, while Bozkurt attempted to provoke fear in the Mamluk realm by releasing the Mamluk prisoners, among whom were governors of Tripoli and Tarsus,[17] after having their fingers cut.[14] The contemporary historian Idris Bitlisi reports that the defeat was caused by the flight of the Dulkadirid forces due to the unexpected arrival of the royal Mamluk forces amidst the Ottoman–Dulkadirid troops' pursuit of the initially defeated Mamluk army. Aşıkpaşazade and Sa'd al-Din directly accused Bozkurt of "arrogance" and exaggerated confidence in his forces.[18]

Second Ottoman–Mamluk War

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The Mamluks were not entirely successful in their latest victory as they had failed to eliminate Bozkurt. Aiming to politically isolate Bozkurt, Qaitbay sent Bayezid an embassy with a manshur from Caliph al-Mutawakkil II proposing to recognize Bayezid as a legitimate sultan in the lands he ruled over, as well as those he could conquer from the non-Muslims in the future. Al-Mutawakkil called for the two Islamic rulers to cease the mutual conflict. Before Qaitbay could receive a response from the Ottoman sultan, he sent a Mamluk army on Bozkurt in 1485. Shah Budak was released from prison in Damascus, but was put back in jail as he was not trusted. Qaitbay's embassy returned to Cairo with the news that they weren't welcomed in Constantinople. By that time, the Ottoman forces commanded by Mahmud Pasha, the beylerbey of Karaman, and Karagoz Pasha had occupied Gülek Castle after the complaints of the local Turkmen magnates about Mamluk rule. The Mamluk army, led by Uzbek and various other Syrian Mamluk emirs, thus changed its destination to Adana and Tarsus. The Ottoman and Mamluk forces met each other on the opposite banks of the Seyhan River on 12 March 1485. Karagoz Pasha accepted Bozkurt's request for him to postpone the combat by two days, in order for the Dulkadirids to arrive. However, Bozkurt did not send aid to the Ottomans as he claimed he would, which contributed to the defeat of the Ottomans, leading to the restoration of the Mamluk rule over the Cilician Plain.[19]

Bozkurt changed his stance and conveyed his wish to make peace with the Mamluks in December 1485. Qaitbay declined the request.[17] Bozkurt strove to avoid the conflict he had helped create between the two major regional empires. When Bayezid called for his support in the efforts to reclaim the Cilician Plain, Bozkurt intentionally sent his forces late, which resulted in another Ottoman defeat in February 1486 and the capture of the Ottoman commander Hersekzade Ahmed Pasha. Bozkurt sent Qaitbay another request for a truce, which was also rejected. Bayezid then assigned Koca Davud Pasha to deal with the Mamluks and wanted Bozkurt to join the Ottoman forces. Bozkurt maintained that he was far from the region and his army was composed of highlanders who could not fight in coastal areas. When Davud Pasha marched on the Turgud and Varsak tribes in the region of Taşeli, Bozkurt reversed his decision and met with him in Kocakale, on the Anti-Taurus Mountains. He convinced Davud Pasha to pursue the Karamanid prince Mahmud, who had indirectly helped the Mamluks by inciting the tribes in the region to rebel. When Mahmud escaped to Aleppo and the seasonal conditions worsened, Davud Pasha went to Vize, where the Ottoman sultan resided, and Bozkurt went to Marash.[20]

War against Shah Budak

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On 26 September 1487, Shah Budak managed to break out from prison with the help of his wife and slaves, who often visited his chambers. Shah Budak traveled to the Bagras Mountains, where allied Turkmen lords assisted him in passing the Taurus Mountains in the direction of the Ottoman lands. Bayezid welcomed him and appointed him as the sanjak-bey of Vize, which was a warning sign to Ala al-Dawla that the Ottomans could attempt to depose him.[17] On 14 March 1488, Hadım Ali Pasha recaptured Adana and Tarsus from the Mamluks. Ali Pasha restored the fortress in Adana and was preparing to return to Constantinople, when the news of incoming Mamluk forces from Aleppo arrived. Bozkurt parried the Ottomans' call for aid, explaining that he would be waiting in Geben in case the Mamluks tried to enter the Dulkadirid domains. The Ottoman forces were dependent on the naval support from Hersekzade Ahmed Pasha, who had been released from Mamluk captivity. They were eventually vanquished by Uzbek's troops and the allied tribes of Varsak and Turgud on 16 August 1488 near Ağaçayırı. Bozkurt strengthened his ties with the Mamluks by marrying his daughter to the victorious commander Uzbek. Shortly after, Hadım Ali Pasha reported Bozkurt's disloyalty to the sultan.[21]

Bayezid thus declared Shah Budak as the legitimate ruler of Dulkadir, granted him a diploma of investiture and provided him with the assistance of Hiziroghlu Mehmed Pasha and Mihaloghlu Iskender Bey, the sanjak-beys of Little Rum (Amasya and Sivas) and Kayseri, respectively. Shah Budak first arrived in Kırşehir, where he captured the local garrison commander, Shahruh, Ala al-Dawla's son. Shah Budak blinded Shahruh in retribution for the treatment his son Feyyaz had received in 1484. Shah Budak succeeded in occupying a portion of the Dulkadirid domains, which elicited powerful opposition from his brother. Qaitbay learned of the conflict in March 1489.[22] Bozkurt forged a letter to Mahmud Pasha from Shah Budak, claiming total victory on the battlefield by Shah Budak. On the other hand, due to his sympathy for Bozkurt, Mehmed Pasha was purposefully late to the skirmish, which left Shah Budak unassisted apart from about 1000 Ottoman troops under Iskender Bey. Shah Budak fled the battle, Iskender Bey and his son were captured, and the Ottomans suffered approximately 200 casualties. Shah Budak took his son Feyyaz with him and escaped to Syria and later to Cairo, where he begged Qaitbay for forgiveness. Qaitbay instead exiled him to Upper Egypt in November 1489.[23]

Upon the rumors of a new Ottoman expedition, Qaitbay sent an embassy to the Ottoman capital asking for peace. Bayezid imprisoned the Mamluk representative, and the Mamluk army stationed in Aleppo under Uzbek mobilized for Cilicia in May 1490. Following Bozkurt's advice, Uzbek laid siege to Kayseri. When the Ottoman troops appeared close to the city, Uzbek halted the siege and returned south after ransacking Niğde, Ereğli, and Karaman, while Bozkurt retreated to his own country. In response to the damage caused by the Mamluks, Bayezid initiated preparations for a major war. Uzbek ordered Bozkurt to meet with his emir-i ahur in Pazarcık. Although Bozkurt wanted to go there, his son Saru Kaplan and loyal chieftains persuaded him not to. When Uzbek insisted, Bozkurt maintained his neutrality, aware of the warfare that was to come. With the mediation of a Hafsid embassy, the Ottomans and the Mamluks agreed to sign a truce without combat, and Bozkurt successfully sought pardon from the Ottoman sultan.[24]

After Qaitbay's death in 1492, dawatdar (head of the chancery) Akbirdi led an unsuccessful insurrection in Cairo and in its aftermath went to Syria with hopes of carving out a new state for himself. Bozkurt allowed Akbirdi and Aynal, the former governor of Aleppo, to stay in his realm against the wishes of the new governor of Aleppo, Janbolat. Despite Dulkadirid support, Akbirdi fled east of the Euphrates after a major defeat near Aintab in May 1498, where Aynal and two of Bozkurt's sons were killed by the Mamluk forces. Distraught by his sons' deaths, Bozkurt allowed a larger army under Akbirdi's command in an attempt to seize Aleppo in October the same year. The Mamluks gifted Bozkurt a robe of honour and a diploma in exchange for withdrawing his support from Akbirdi. The latter was defeated again at Aleppo, which forced Bozkurt to reconcile with the Mamluks in May 1499. Akbirdi returned to Aleppo after the agreement but died there one month later.[25]

Advent of Ismail

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The Ottoman–Dulkadirid relations momentarily took a positive turn. Bozkurt received four Polish prisoners from the voivode of Moldavia, who had overpowered Poland with Ottoman support. In 1500, members of the Dulkadirid tribe joined the Ottomans in the Battle of Modon against the Republic of Venice. The same year, Bozkurt's son Shahruh assisted the Ottomans in extinguishing a revolt by the Varsak and Turgud tribes in response to changes in taxation. Bozkurt continued to preserve his amicable relations with the Mamluks and acted as an intermediary in a discord between Arikmaz, the governor of Birecik, and the Mamluk government.[26]

A new threat to the Dulkadirids at the time came from the east, as the Safavid ruler Ismail I rose in the former Aq Qoyunlu lands. Ismail had attained a significant degree of influence over the Turkmens in Iran and Anatolia. Ismail followed Shia Islam, which also spread in the Dulkadirid realm. Bozkurt attempted to bar many Shia, or Qizilbash, Turkmens he ruled over from migrating east to join Ismail. Coincidentally, Ismail proposed to marry to Bozkurt's daughter, Benli Khatun. Although Bozkurt initially indicated his potential approval, he eventually declined on the grounds of Ismail's adherence to Shiism. In the spring of 1502, when Ismail reached Tercan pursuing the Aq Qoyunlu claimant Alvand Beg, he sent a portion of his troops against Bozkurt but promptly left the region upon the news of Alvand's offensive on Tabriz. In June 1503, Ismail defeated the last Aq Qoyunlu ruler, Sultan Murad, in Hamadan, forcing him to ultimately flee to Baghdad. When Ismail appeared in Baghdad, both Murad and the Aq Qoyunlu governor of Arab Iraq, Barik Beg Purnak, escaped to Marash. Bozkurt requested help against Ismail from Bayezid, who did not act upon Bozkurt's wish and instead congratulated Ismail for his victories, in order to avoid a confrontation with the Safavids. Bozkurt married his daughter Benlu to Sultan Murad and assisted him in the restoration of his rule over Baghdad in the spring of 1504 when Ismail was occupied with his campaign in Mazandaran in northern Iran.[27]

Alvand Beg at Bozkurt's court, in a miniature by Mo'en Mosavver in Tarikh-e Alamara-ye Shah Ismail (1676)

Alvand Beg's death in Diyarbekir ignited an internal struggle over the succession within the Aq Qoyunlu remnants. Bozkurt supported Göde Ahmed's young son Zaynal against Amir Beg, the divan-begi of Alvand, with a large force composed of almost all of the young members of the Dulkadir dynasty. The force marched towards Ergani and destroyed its fortress. The Kurdish chieftains of Eğil, Atak, and Silvan joined the Dulkadirids. Mardin was captured by Shahruh, who placed a 300-strong garrison in the city. The Dulkadirids seized Sinjar and advanced until Mosul. The Dulkadirids triumphed over a force of the Mawsillu tribe, which was on its way to provide aid to the besieged city of Urfa. The fall of the latter to the Dulkadirids marked the end of the campaign. However, Zaynal's rule in Diyarbekir did not continue for long, as his poor administrative decisions facilitated the restoration of Amir Beg's rule. Zaynal returned to the Dulkadirid court, and Bozkurt instead pressured Amir Beg to recognize him as his overlord.[28]

The Safavid–Dulkadirid conflict as depicted by an unknown artist, from Tarikh-e Alam-ara-ye Shah Ismail.

Bozkurt's affiliation with the Aq Qoyunlu escalated Ismail's hostility towards him. In 1507, Ismail entered the Ottoman domains through Erzincan and Suşehri with Bayezid's approval. Ismail arrived at the Dulkadirid frontier near Sarız, headed towards Elbistan. Although Saru Kaplan repelled the Safavid reconnaissance forces, who suffered 300 casualties, he retreated when Ismail himself arrived in the region with his main army. Bozkurt hid himself in Mount Turna and called for Ottoman help, which arrived in Ankara but did not engage in the conflict. Ismail erected his encampment on the slopes of Mount Turna. After a long wait for Bozkurt to come out of hiding, Ismail stopped the siege, dubbing Bozkurt Ala dana (lit. 'red calf'). Ismail returned to Azerbaijan after devastating Elbistan and Marash and imposing Safavid rule in Diyarbekir and Harpoot. Bozkurt retook Urfa as soon as Ismail left the country, and accommodated Kaitmaz, the brother of Amir Beg, in reclaiming Diyarbekir from its Safavid governor Mohammad Khan Ustajlu, who was encamped near Mardin dealing with the Kurdish nomads who harassed the Safavids. Promising to marry Kaitmaz to one of his daughters, Bozkurt sent him back to Diyarbekir with an army commanded by Saru Kaplan and Erdivane. However, in 1509, 800 Safavid troops recaptured Diyarbekir from the Dulkadirids: Bozkurt's sons were executed, and Mohammad Khan sent their heads to Ismail. Kaitmaz continued resisting the Safavids but was soon captured and killed.[29]

Ismail's fight with Saru Kaplan as illustrated by Mo'en Mosavver in Tarikh-e Alam-ara-ye Shah Ismail.

The spring of 1510 marked a new Dulkadirid campaign against Diyarbekir, taking advantage of the Safavid campaign against Baghdad. A 14,000-strong force led by Bozkurt's sons Shahruh and Ahmed faced Mohammad Khan Ustajlu. Before the battle, the Dulkadirid and the Safavid forces observed a customary dog fight. When their dogs scared away those of the Dulkadirids, the Safavids took this as a sign of good luck and made a successful attack. Shahruh and Ahmed along with forty other men were caught and immediately beheaded, apart from Shahruh's sons Mehmed and Ali, who were spared and appointed to important positions by Ismail. Bozkurt was deeply saddened by the departure of his sons and mourned them for a long period by wearing black.[30]

Ala al-Dawla Bozkurt (top left mounting a horse) and Ismail watching their dogs fight each other in a c. 1650 miniature from Tarikh-e Alamara-ye Shah Ismail.

War with the Ottomans and death

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See also: Battle of Turnadağ

The forces of Mohammad Khan violated the Mamluk border near Malatya without the knowledge of Ismail but were eventually repelled by Bozkurt. Ismail followed a reconciliatory policy with the Mamluk sultan Qansuh al-Ghawri and Bozkurt. A tent that was gifted by Ismail to Bozkurt in 1511 is an indication of the truce that was agreed on between the two sides. The new Ottoman sultan Selim I was aware of the restored relations between Bozkurt and his enemy Ismail. Bozkurt had not sent any congratulatory messages to Selim for his ascension to the throne. When Selim requested him to take part in his campaign against the Safavids in Chaldiran by calling upon their shared adherence to Sunni Islam, Bozkurt declined, pointing out his advanced age. At the time, Selim was harboring Bozkurt's nephew Ali, who was made the sanjak-bey of Chirmen, as a claimant to the Dulkadirid throne. On the other hand, Bozkurt had enacted an embargo in his realm on any kind of subsistence from the Ottoman realm. Wary of any attacks that could come from the Dulkadirids, Selim left a 40,000-strong force to cover his flanks between Kayseri and Sivas as he was marching east.[31]

Selim hunts a tiger in the Dulkadirid realm near the Küskün Stream, from Hünername (1584).

In November 1514, returning from a victory against the Safavids at Chaldiran, Selim appointed Ali as the sanjak-bey of Kayseri, on the border with the Dulkadirid domains, in preparation for eliminating Bozkurt. On the instructions of Selim, Ali occupied Dulkadirid-controlled Bozok in the winter and there beheaded Bozkurt's son, Suleiman. Selim granted Ali the newly seized province as the Sanjak of Bozok. When Bozkurt complained to the Mamluks, the Mamluk sultan urged Selim to dismiss Ali from his positions in May 1515. Selim responded by requesting the Mamluks to install Ali on the Dulkadirid throne. Qansuh reminded Selim of the actions of Ali's father, Shah Suwar, against the Mamluks and rejected Ali's ascension. Qansuh soon realized that the Dulkadirid realm was lost for the Mamluks and proposed instead to Selim to divide the realm among themselves. Selim fiercely objected and hinted that he would attempt to conquer all the entire Mamluk Sultanate. While the diplomatic traffic between the two regional powers was going on, the Dulkadirids destroyed the accommodations of the Ottoman army, which resulted in a great reduction of the Ottomans' military power.[32]

Miniature from Tadj ut-Tewarikh depicting the moment Bozkurt's severed head is presented to Selim I

A 30,000-strong army under Sinan Pasha, the beylerbey of Rumelia, departed for Elbistan on 5 June 1515. Bozkurt once again transferred his harem and treasury to Mount Turna. Thirty thousand Dulkadirid troops faced the Ottoman military on 13 June 1515 at Ördekli [tr], located near Göksun. Upon Ali's invitation, some of the Turkmen lords who had once been loyal to his father Shah Suwar changed sides. During the battle, one of the Ottoman soldiers noticed Bozkurt with his extravagant dress and lunged at him. After killing Bozkurt, the soldier presented his head to Sinan Pasha. When they realized their leader was dead, most of the Dulkadirid troops deserted Bozkurt's four sons and brother Abdurrazaq, and fled to the mountains. Among numerous casualties, one of Bozkurt's sons and 30 chieftains died in battle, while Bozkurt's remaining relatives, including his consorts, were captured. Bozkurt's head was presented to Selim in Göksun. Selim sent the heads of Bozkurt, his vizier, and one of his sons to Cairo. Ali was installed as the new ruler of the Dulkadir, disregarding Qansuh's request to leave a portion of the realm to Bozkurt's offspring. The khutbah (Friday sermon) was read in Selim's name as a declaration of the Ottoman overlordship over the Dulkadirids.[33] Bozkurt's tomb is located in the nearby village of Gökçeli [tr].[3]

A view of Ördekli from 2011.

Administration

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The Ala al-Dawla Kanunname is the only known code of law from the Dulkadirid rule. It implemented the timar system identical to its use in the Ottoman Empire. It consisted of the penal and land laws of the realm, combining sharia and local customary law.[34] During his rule, Bozkurt came to be known by several titles. A vakfiye (inscription) from 1500 and Ottoman tahrir defters refer to him as a sultan. The epigraph of the Grand Mosque of Marash mentions him as the Malik al-Adil (lit. 'just king'), Nur al-Dawla (lit. 'light of the state'), Ghawth al-Millah (lit. 'scholar of the nation'), Husam al-Din (lit. 'sword of the religion'), Emir al-Muminin (lit. 'emir of the believers').[35]

Family

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Bozkurt was married to his paternal uncle Rustam Beg's daughter Shamsa Khatun (died 1509).[36] Bozkurt's sons included:[2]

  • Shahruh
  • Turak
  • Suleiman
  • Erdivane
  • Kasim, nicknamed Saru Kaplan (lit. 'yellow tiger' in Turkish)
  • Mehmed
  • Ahmed

Bozkurt's daughters included:[2]

  • Ayshe Khatun
  • Beglu (or Benlu) Khatun
  • Another daughter, who was married to the Mamluk commander Uzbek's son.[37]

Shahruh became the lord of Kırşehir, while Suleiman was the lord of Bozok. Ayshe Khatun married the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II around 1467. Bozkurt's other daughter, Beglu married Sultan Murad of the Aq Qoyunlu after her father refused Shah Ismail's request to marry her.[2]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ referred to as Aladul by 16–18th-century European sources[1]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Carrafa 1572, p. 16; Dryselius 1694, p. 101; Krusínski 1728, p. 17.
  2. ^ a b c d e Venzke 2017.
  3. ^ a b Öztuna 2005, p. 89.
  4. ^ a b c Har-El 1995, p. 100.
  5. ^ a b c Yinanç 1989, p. 78.
  6. ^ a b Yinanç 1989, p. 79.
  7. ^ Har-El 1995, pp. 100–101.
  8. ^ a b Har-El 1995, p. 101.
  9. ^ a b c d e Yinanç 1989, p. 81.
  10. ^ Har-El 1995, p. 111.
  11. ^ Yinanç 1989, p. 80.
  12. ^ Har-El 1995, p. 124.
  13. ^ a b Har-El 1995, p. 125.
  14. ^ a b c d Yinanç 1989, p. 82.
  15. ^ Har-El 1995, pp. 125–126.
  16. ^ Har-El 1995, p. 126.
  17. ^ a b c Har-El 1995, p. 194.
  18. ^ Har-El 1995, p. 127.
  19. ^ Yinanç 1989, pp. 82–83.
  20. ^ Yinanç 1989, pp. 83–84.
  21. ^ Yinanç 1989, pp. 84–85.
  22. ^ Har-El 1995, p. 195.
  23. ^ Yinanç 1989, pp. 85–86.
  24. ^ Yinanç 1989, pp. 86–87.
  25. ^ Yinanç 1989, pp. 87–88.
  26. ^ Yinanç 1989, pp. 88–89.
  27. ^ Yinanç 1989, pp. 89–91.
  28. ^ Yinanç 1989, pp. 91–92.
  29. ^ Yinanç 1989, pp. 92–94.
  30. ^ Yinanç 1989, p. 95.
  31. ^ Yinanç 1989, pp. 95–96.
  32. ^ Yinanç 1989, pp. 96–97.
  33. ^ Yinanç 1989, pp. 98–99.
  34. ^ Yinanç 1989, p. 108.
  35. ^ Yinanç 1989, p. 106.
  36. ^ Yinanç 1989, p. 121.
  37. ^ Fleet & Faroqhi 2012, p. 155.

Bibliography

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  • Carrafa, Giovanni Battista (1572). Dell'historie del regno di Napoli (in Italian). Naples: Appresso Giuseppe Cacchij. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
  • De Giorgi, Andrea U.; Eger, A. Asa (30 May 2021). Antioch: A History. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781317540410. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
  • Dryselius, Erlandus (1694). Luna Turcica, eller Turkeske Mäne, anwijsandes lika som uti an spegel (in Swedish). Jönköping.
  • Fleet, Kate; Faroqhi, Suraiya N., eds. (12 November 2012). The Cambridge History of Turkey: Volume 2, The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453–1603. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781316175545.
  • Har-El, Shai (1995). Struggle for Domination in the Middle East: The Ottoman-Mamluk War, 1485-91. E.J. Brill. ISBN 9004101802. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
  • Krusínski, Judas Thaddeus (1728). The History of the Revolution of Persia. London: S. Aris. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
  • Melvin-Koushki, Matthew (2011). "The Delicate Art of Aggression: Uzun Hasan's "Fathnama" to Qaytbay of 1469". Iranian Studies. 44 (2). Cambridge University Press: 193–214. doi:10.1080/00210862.2011.541688. JSTOR 23033324. S2CID 162248528. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
  • Muslu, Cihan Yüksel (25 July 2014). The Ottomans and the Mamluks: Imperial Diplomacy and Warfare in the Islamic World. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 9780857735805. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
  • Öztuna, Yılmaz (2005). Devletler ve hanedanlar: Türkiye (1074-1990) (in Turkish). Ministry of Culture. ISBN 9751704693. OCLC 949531568.
  • Peirce, Leslie (16 June 2003). Morality Tales: Law and Gender in the Ottoman Court of Aintab. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520228924. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
  • Petry, Carl F. (26 May 2022). The Mamluk Sultanate A History. Cambridge University Press.
  • Venzke, Margaret L. (2017). "Dulkadir". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Stewart, Denis J. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. III. E. J. Brill.
  • Yinanç, Refet (1989). Dulkadir Beyliği (in Turkish). Ankara: Turkish Historical Society Press. ISBN 9751601711. OCLC 21676736.
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